> [[at-sl-20|← B2 Ch. I]] | [[at-spiritual-life-toc|TOC]] | [[at-sl-22|Prudence →]] # Chapter II. The Moral Virtues [1] Before proceeding to describe them singly, we must briefly recall the theological notions concerning the infused virtues. PRELIMINARY NOTIONS CONCERNING THE INFUSED VIRTUES First we shall speak of the infused virtues in general, and then of the moral virtues in particular. I. The Infused Virtues in General[2] 998\. There are natural virtues, that is to say, there are good habits, acquired through the frequent repetition of acts, that render easy the performance of morally good actions. Thus, pagans and unbelievers can with the help of God’s natural concurrence acquire and gradually perfect the moral virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance. We do not treat here of these natural virtues, but of the supernatural or infused virtues as they exist in the Christian soul. 999\. Raised to the supernatural state, and having no other destiny than the Beatific Vision, we must tend thereto through acts performed under the influence of supernatural principles and of supernatural motives, for there must be a proportion between the end and the acts that lead to it. And so, the virtues which the world calls natural, must be practiced by us in a supernatural manner. As Father Garrigou-Lagrange[3], following St. Thomas, rightly says: “The Christian moral virtues are infused and because of their formal object, are essentially distinct from the highest of acquired moral virtues described by the greatest philosophers… There is an infinite difference between Aristotelian temperance with reason as its only rule, and Christian temperance with the superadded rule of divine faith and supernatural prudence.” We have already shown in nos. 121-122, how these virtues are communicated to us by the Holy Ghost dwelling in us; now we have but to describe: 1° their 2° their growth, 3° their decline, 4° the bond of union existing among them. 1° THE NATURE OF THE INFUSED VIRTUES 1000\. A) The infused virtues are principles of action which God ingrafts in us, that they may perform in the soul the function of supernatural faculties and may thus enable us to perform meritorious acts. There exists an essential difference between the infused and the acquired virtues from the threefold point of view of origin, mode of operation, and purpose. a) As regards origin, the natural virtues are acquired by the repetition of the same acts, whilst the supernatural virtues proceed from God, Who implants them in the soul together with habitual grace. b) From the point of view of operation, the natural virtues, because they are acquired through the repetition of the same acts, give us a facility for producing the like acts readily and with a sense of pleasure; the supernatural virtues, placed by God in the soul, simply give us the power to produce meritorious acts, together with a certain tendency towards the production of these acts; facility will come with frequent repetition. c) With regard to their purpose, the natural virtues seek natural righteousness and direct us towards the Creator, the God of Nature; the infused virtues pursue supernatural good and lead us to the God of Revelation, the Triune God, made known to us by faith. Hence, the motives inspiring the latter must be supernatural; they all refer to our friendship with God. I practice prudence, justice, temperance and fortitude, in order to be one with God. 1001\. It follows that acts of supernatural virtue are possessed of a far higher perfection than acts of acquired virtue[1]. Christian temperance, for instance, leads us not merely to the moderation needed to maintain man’s dignity, but to positive practices of mortification whereby we become more like Our Savior; Christian humility not only makes us avoid the excesses of pride and of anger incompatible with right reason, but it causes us to embrace humiliation, which renders us more like Our Divine Exemplar. There is therefore an essential difference between acquired and infused virtues; for their principle and their motive differ. 1002\. B) We have said that facility in the exercise of the infused virtues is acquired by the repetition of the same acts and lends readiness, ease and pleasure to action. Three main causes concur in producing this happy result: a) Habit lessens the obstacles or the resistance offered by our lower nature, and thus, with the same amount of effort, better results are obtained. b) Habit likewise renders our faculties, more pliant, makes them quicker to respond to the motives that lead us to good and more skilful in the attainment of the good perceived; we even experience a certain satisfaction in the exercise of faculties so well trained, much as a musician does in playing upon a delicate instrument. c) Lastly, actual grace, bestowed upon us in proportion to our faithful correspondence, likewise gives us a singular facility to perform our task and to love it. We may note in passing that this facility once acquired is not immediately lost when by mortal sin we lose the infused virtue; but being the result of oft-repeated acts, it still remains for a time, in virtue of the psychological laws governing acquired habits. 2° THE GROWTH OF INFUSED VIRTUES 1003\. A) The infused virtues are susceptible of growth in the soul and do, as a matter of fact, grow there with the increase of habitual grace, whence they flow. This growth is God-given, since He alone can give us an increase of divine life and of the elements that constitute it. Now, God causes this increase when we receive the Sacraments, perform good works, or recite our prayers. a) Because of their very institution, the Sacraments cause within us an increase of habitual grace, and thereby of the infused virtues that go with grace, in proportion to our dispositions, nos. 259-261. b) Our good works, also, merit not only glory, but an increase of habitual grace and thereby an increase of the infused virtues. This increase depends in a large measure upon the fervor of our dispositions, no. 237. c) Prayer, besides its meritorious value, has an impetratory power; it obtains an increase of grace and of virtue in proportion to the fervor with which we pray. It is important, then, that we unite our prayers to those of the Church and that with her we ask for an increase of faith, hope, and charity. B) According to St. Thomas, this increase is effected not by an accession of degree or of quantity, but by a more perfect and more effective possession of the virtue. It is in this manner that virtues take deeper root in the soul and become more solid and more active. 3° THE DECLINE AND LOSS OF THE VIRTUES Any activity that is given up or is brought into play but seldom, tends to decline or even to be lost entirely. 1004\. A) The Weakening of the Virtues. In reality, the infused virtues cannot be decreased, any more than can sanctifying grace, on which they depend. Venial sin cannot diminish them, just as it cannot decrease habitual grace itself. But venial sin, especially when frequent and fully deliberate, does hinder considerably the exercise of these virtues, by lessening the facility acquired through previous acts. This facility is the result of earnestness and perseverance in effort; but deliberate venial faults chill our ardor, and partly paralyze our activity, no. 730. Thus, venial sins against the virtue of temperance, though they do not detract from that infused virtue itself gradually lessen the facility once acquired for mortifying sensuality. Besides, abuse of grace causes a reduction of the number of actual graces which help in the exercise of the virtues, and on this account the practice of virtue lacks vigor. Lastly, as we have stated, (no. 731) deliberate venial faults pave the way for grave ones and thereby for the loss of the virtues. 1005\. B) The Loss of the Virtues. We can state as a principle that the infused virtues are lost by any act that destroys their formal object, their motive. In fact, virtue is thereby torn out by the roots. a) Thus, charity is forfeited by any mortal sin, for such sin destroys the formal object or basis of that virtue, since mortal sin is directly opposed to God’s infinite goodness. b) The infused moral virtues also are lost through any mortal sin. They are bound to charity in such wise, that they come and go with it. However, the facility that had been acquired to perform acts of prudence, of justice etc., remains for a time after the infused virtues have been lost, due to the persevering character of acquired habits. c) As to the virtues of faith and hope, these abide in the soul, even when grace has been lost by mortal sin, unless it be a sin directly opposed to either of these virtues. This is so because other sins do not destroy in the soul the foundations of faith or of hope; besides God in His infinite mercy wills that these two virtues stay with us as a last anchor of salvation. As long as we believe and as long as we hope conversion remains relatively easy. 4° THE BOND OF UNION EXISTING AMONG THE VIRTUES 1006\. It is often said that all virtues are correlated. This demands explanation. A) First of all, charity rightly conceived and rightly practiced comprises all the virtues; not only faith and hope (which is evident), but even the moral virtues, as we have explained, following St. Paul, in no. 318: “Charity is patient, is kind, etc.” This is true in the sense that he who loves God and the neighbor for God’s sake, is ready to practice one and all the virtues the moment conscience makes him aware of his obligation. As a matter of fact one cannot truly love God above all things, and not want to observe His commandments and even some of the counsels. Besides, the proper function of charity is that of directing all our acts towards God, our last end, and hence of controlling the acts of all the Christian virtues. One may say that a growth in charity is attended by a positive growth in the other virtues as well. However, whilst the love of God inclines the will towards acts of the moral virtues and facilitates their practice, it does not immediately and necessarily bestow the perfection of all these virtues, for instance, of prudence, of humility, of obedience, of chastity. A sincerely converted sinner, for example, who had previously contracted evil habits, will not, though practicing charity in all earnestness, become at once perfectly prudent, perfectly chaste, or temperate. Time and effort will be required before he can discard old habits and form new ones. 1007\. B) Since charity constitutes the form, the fulness of perfection of all the virtues, the latter are never perfect without it. Thus faith and hope which abide in the sinner’s soul are indeed real virtues, but remain incomplete, that is to say, they lack that quality that directs them towards God as last end; and so the acts of faith and of hope performed in the state of sin cannot merit heaven, even though they are supernatural and form a preparation for conversion. 1008\. C) With regard to the moral virtues, if one possesses them in their perfection, that is to say, animated by charity and in a somewhat high degree, they are truly correlated in this sense that we cannot be in possession of one without possessing the others. Thus, all virtues in order to be perfect, require the virtue of prudence. Prudence itself cannot be practiced perfectly without the concurrence of fortitude, of justice, and of temperance. A weak character prone to injustice and to intemperance will in many circumstances fail in prudence. Justice, likewise, cannot be practiced in all its perfection without strength of soul and temperance. Fortitude in turn must be tempered by prudence and justice, and it would not long survive without the virtue of temperance.[1] When however the moral virtues exist but in a low degree, the presence of one does not necessarily entail the practice of the others. Thus there are persons who are modest without being humble and others who are humble without being merciful, or merciful without being just.[1] II\. The Moral Virtues We shall give a brief account of their nature, their number, and of the character common to all. 1009\. 1° Their Nature. These virtues are called moral for a twofold reason: a) to distinguish them from the purely intellectual virtues, which perfect the intellect with no reference to the moral life, such as science, art, etc.; b) to differentiate them also from the theological virtues, which do indeed regulate our moral life, but which, as we have already said, have God directly for their object, while the moral virtues pursue directly a supernatural, created good, for example, the mastery of our passions. Withal, we must bear in mind that the supernatural, moral virtues themselves constitute a participation in the life of God and fit us for the Beatific Vision. Furthermore, according as these virtues become more and more perfect, and especially when they are complemented by the gifts of the Holy Ghost, they merge with the theological virtues in such wise as to become, as it were, permeated by these, until they are but the various manifestations of the charity that animates them. 1010\. 2° Their Number. The moral virtues considered in their divers ramifications are very numerous, but all can be reduced to the four cardinal virtues (so called from the word cardines, hinges) since they are, so to speak, four hinges upon which all the other virtues depend. These four virtues, in fact, meet all the soul’s needs and perfect all its moral faculties. 1011\. A) They meet all the needs of the soul. a) First of all, we must make a choice of all the means necessary or useful to the attainment of our supernatural end: this falls within the scope of the virtue of prudence. b) We must likewise respect the rights of others: this comes within the sphere of justice. c) In order to defend, without fear or violence, both ourselves and our possessions from the dangers that threaten us, we stand in need of the virtue of fortitude. d) If we would use the goods of this world and its pleasures without exceeding the proper measure, we need the virtue of temperance. Thus, justice regulates our relations with the neighbor, fortitude and temperance determine our duties to ourselves and prudence directs the other three virtues. 1012\. B) They perfect all the moral faculties. The intellect is controlled by prudence, the will by justice, the irascible appetite by fortitude, and the concupiscible appetite by temperance. We must however call attention to the fact that inasmuch as both the irascible and concupiscible appetites receive their morality solely through the will, the virtues of fortitude and temperance reside in this superior faculty as well as in the lower faculties that are directed in their function by the will. 1013\. C) Lastly, we may add that each of these virtues can be considered as a genus containing integral, subjective and potential parts. a) The integral parts are complements so useful or necessary to the practice of virtue, that the virtue would not be perfect were these elements lacking. Thus, patience and constancy are integral parts of fortitude. b) The subjective (or inherent) parts are, so to speak, different species subordinated to the principal virtue. Thus, sobriety and chastity are subjective parts of temperance. c) The potential (or accessory) parts have a certain similarity to the principal virtue, but do not in every respect fulfil all the conditions found in it. Thus, the virtue of religion is an accessory part of the virtue of justice, because it tends to render to God the worship due to Him, but it can do so only inadequately, both as regards the perfection of the manner in which that worship should be rendered, and the extent in which it should be offered. Obedience likewise renders to superiors the submission due to them, but here again there exists no strict right, absolutely speaking, nor the relation of equal to equal. Our task will be easier, and that of our readers also, if we do not enter into an enumeration of all these divisions and subdivisions. We shall select the principal virtues and we shall lay stress only upon their most essential elements from the twofold point of view of theory and practice. 1014\. 3° The Character Common to All Moral Virtues. a) All the moral virtues strive to keep the golden mean: in medio stat virtus. They must follow the rule of right reason enlightened by faith. This rule may be broken either by excess or defect, and so, moral virtue consists in avoiding these two extremes. b) The theological virtues as such do not consist in holding this middle course, since, as St. Bernard says, the measure wherewith to love God is to love Him without measure. However, considered in their relation to us, the theological virtues must likewise take cognizance of the golden mean, in other words, they must be controlled by prudence, which tells us what are the circumstances in which we can and must practice these virtues. It is prudence, for instance, which shows us what we must believe and what we must not believe, as well as how to avoid both presumption and despair. # Division of the Second Chapter 1015\. In this second chapter we shall treat of the four cardinal virtues and of the principal virtues related to them. ![[at-sl-img-15.jpeg]] [[at-sl-22]] [[at-sl-23]] [[at-sl-24]] [[at-sl-25]] [[at-sl-fn-21|Fn: B2 Ch. II]] --- ![[maps/bibliography#^biblio-tan]] > [[at-sl-20|← B2 Ch. I]] | [[at-spiritual-life-toc|TOC]] | [[at-sl-22|Prudence →]]