> [[at-sl-24|← Fortitude]] | [[at-spiritual-life-toc|TOC]] | [[at-sl-26|B2 Ch. III →]] # Art. IV. The Virtue of Temperance [5] If fortitude is needed to restrain fear, temperance is no less necessary to control that allurement to pleasure which so easily turns us away from God. 1099\. Temperance is a supernatural, moral virtue that moderates the attraction towards sense-pleasure, especially the pleasures of the palate and the flesh, and keeps them within the proper limits of propriety. Its object is the moderation of all sense-pleasure, but particularly of that connected with the two great functions of organic life; namely, the preservation of the individual by nourishment, and the preservation of the race by sexual relations. Temperance causes us to make use of pleasure for an end which is worthy and at the same time supernatural. By that very fact it regulates the use of the said pleasures according to the dictates of reason and of faith. Precisely because pleasure is enticing and easily lures us beyond the proper limits, temperance leads us to mortify ourselves, even in some of the things that are permissible, in order to ensure the preponderance of reason over passion. It is by the aid of these principles that we shall solve particular questions. We have already dealt sufficiently with the rules to be followed in the regulation of the pleasure that accompanies the function of nutrition (n. 864). Now we shall treat of chastity, which moderates the pleasures attached to the propagation of the race. Then we shall speak of the two virtues allied to temperance; namely, humility and meekness. ## § I. Chastity [1] 1100\. 1° Notion. The aim of chastity is to check whatever is inordinate in voluptuous pleasures. These pleasures have for their principal end the perpetuation of the race through the right use of marriage. They are lawful only between married persons, and then only when they further, or at least do not interfere with the primary end of marriage which is the procreation of children. Chastity is rightly called the angelic virtue, because it likens us to the angels, who are pure by nature. It is an austere virtue, because we do not succeed in practicing it unless we subdue the body and the senses by mortification. It is a frail virtue, tarnished by the least wilful failing. On this account it is a difficult virtue, since it cannot be observed except by a generous and constant struggle against the most tyrannical of passions. 1101\. 2° Degrees. 1) There are several degrees of chastity. The first one consists in carefully refraining from consent to any thought, fancy, feeling or action contrary to this virtue. 2\) The second aims at ridding oneself immediately and energetically of every thought, image or impression that could soil the luster of chastity. 3\) The third, which is seldom attained save after long efforts in the practice of the love of God, consists in acquiring such a mastery over our senses and our thoughts that, when duty requires us to deal with questions relating to chastity, we do so with all the calm and composure that would attend the treatment of any other subject. 4\) Finally, there are some who, by a special privilege, attain such a degree of chastity that they experience no inordinate feelings whatever, as is related of St. Thomas after his victorious issue from an extraordinary temptation. 1102\. 3° Kinds. There are two kinds of chastity: conjugal chastity proper to persons living in lawful wedlock, and continence proper to the unmarried. After briefly treating of the first, we shall lay emphasis on the second, chiefly in so far as it applies to persons who lead a life of celibacy either in the religious or in the ecclesiastical state. I. Conjugal Chastity 1103\. 1° Principle. Married persons should never forget that, according to the teaching of St. Paul, Christian marriage is symbolical of the holy bond that exists between Christ and His Church: “Husbands, love your wives, as Christ also loved the Church and delivered himself for it, that He might sanctify it.”[1] They must then love respect and sanctify each other (n. 591). The first effect of this love is an indissoluble union of hearts, and therefore an inviolable mutual fidelity. 1104\. 2° Mutual Fidelity. a) Here we shall borrow the language of St. Francis de Sales[2] or give a summary of his thought. “Preserve, then, O husbands! a tender, constant, and cordial love for your wives… If you desire that your wives should be faithful to you, give them a lesson by your example. How, says St. Gregory Nazianzen[3], can you exact purity of your wives, when you yourselves live in impurity?”—“But you, O wives, whose honor is inseparably joined with purity and modesty, be zealous to preserve this your glory, and suffer no kind of loose behavior to tarnish the whiteness of your reputation. Fear all kinds of assaults, how small soever they may be; never suffer any wanton address to approach you; for he that praises the ware which he cannot buy is strongly tempted to steal it, but if to your praise he adds the dispraise of your husband, he offers you a heinous injury; for it is evident that he not only desires to ruin you, but accounts you already half lost, since the bargain is half made with a second merchant when one is disgusted with the first.” b) Nothing so well secures this mutual fidelity as the practice of true devotion, particularly of prayer in common. “Thus, wives ought to wish that their husbands should be preserved with the sugar of devotion; for a man without devotion is severe, harsh, and rough. And husbands ought to wish that their wives should be devout, because without devotion, a woman is very frail, and liable to obscure, and perhaps to lose, her virtue.” c) “As to the rest, their mutual bearing with each other ought to be so great that they should never be both angry with each other at the same time, so that dissension or debate be never seen between them.” Therefore, if one be angry, let the other hold his peace, in order that peace may be restored the sooner.” 1105\. 3° Conjugal Duty. They should reverence the holiness of the marriage-bed by the purity of their intention and the seemliness of their relations. A) Their intention must be the same as that of the young Tobias when he took Sarah for wife; “And now, Lord, thou knowest that not for fleshly lust do I take my sister to wife, but only for the love of posterity in which thy name may be blessed for ever and ever.”[1] This is in fact the primary end of Christian marriage, to procreate children who are to be reared in the fear and love of God, to be trained to a pious and Christian life so as to become one day citizens of Heaven. The secondary end of marriage is mutual help to bear the sufferings of life, and to overcome passion by subordinating pleasure to duty. 1106\. B) They must, then, faithfully and candidly fulfil their marriage obligations. Whatever favors the transmission of life is not only licit, but praiseworthy. On the contrary, any act whatever whereby this primary end would be hindered constitutes a grave sin, since it is against the essential purpose of marriage. They should bear in mind the following observation of St. Paul:[2] “Defraud not one another, except, perhaps, by consent, for a time, that you may give yourselves to prayer: and return together again, lest Satan tempt you for your incontinency.” C) Moderation is necessary in the use of the marriage right as it is in the taking of meals. It is even a hygienic measure, and propriety requires that continence be practiced at times. One does not succeed in this unless one has formed the habit of subordinating pleasure to reason, and unless one seeks in the frequent reception of the Sacraments a remedy for the too violent motions of concupiscence. However, let no one forget, that it is by no means impossible, and that through prayer one always obtains the grace of practicing virtue, even the most austere. II\. Continence or Celibacy 1107\. Absolute continence is a duty of those who are not united in the bonds of lawful wedlock. Therefore, it must be practiced by all before marriage as well as by those who are widowed.[1] There is yet another class of chosen souls called to practice a life-long continence either in the religious state, or in the priesthood, or even in the world. It is well to give them special rules for the perfect preservation of purity. Chastity is a frail and delicate virtue that cannot be preserved unless it be protected by other virtues. It is, as it were, a citadel that requires for its defence the raising of outward ramparts. These are four in number: 1° humility, which produces self-distrust and prompts to flight from dangerous occasions; 2° mortification, which by waging war against the love of pleasure, reaches the evil at its roots; 3° devotion to the duties of state, which protects one from the perils created by idleness; 4° love for God, which by filling the heart, prevents it from giving itself over to dangerous affections. Within these four ramparts the soul is not only able to repulse the onslaughts of the enemy, but also to grow in purity. 1° HUMILITY THE GUARDIAN OF CHASTITY 1108\. This virtue produces in us principally three dispositions, which shelter us from many a danger: distrust of self and confidence in God, flight from dangerous occasions, sincerity in the Sacrament of Penance. A) Distrust of self accompanied by confidence in God. Many a soul falls into impurity through pride and presumption. St. Paul calls attention to this fact with regard to the Pagan philosophers, who whilst glorying in their wisdom yielded to all manner of turpitude: “For this cause, God delivered them up to shameful affections.”[2] Father Olier thus explains this fact: “God, Who cannot suffer pride in the soul, humbles it to the very depths; and, desiring to show the soul its weakness, and that it has no power of itself to resist evil and persevere in well doing… allows it to be tormented by those terrible temptations, and at times even to fall, because such temptations are the most shameful and leave behind them the greater confusion.” When, on the contrary one is firmly convinced that of oneself one cannot be chaste, one repeats the humble prayer which St. Philip Neri used to address to God: “My God, beware of Philip; otherwise he will betray Thee.” 1109\. a) This distrust must be universal, 1) It is necessary to those who have sinned grievously, for the temptation will return, and without the help of grace they will be exposed to a fresh fall. It is no less necessary to those who have preserved their innocence, for one day or another temptation will assail them, and will be all the more dangerous for them because of their inexperience. 2) This distrust must last to the very end of life. Solomon was no longer a youth when he let himself be caught by the love of women. It was old men that tempted the chaste Susanna. The evil spirit that assails us in mature life is all the more dangerous, because we thought him conquered. Experience shows that so long as there remains in us a spark of life, the smouldering fires of concupiscence may burst forth once more. 3) This diffidence is necessary for even the holiest souls. The evil one is more anxious to cause their fall than that of coarser souls, and he lays for them more treacherous snares. This is the warning of St. Jerome[1] in his letter to Eustochium, and elsewhere[2] he adds that it is vain to seek reassurance in the long years already lived in chastity, in holiness and in the pursuance of wisdom. 1110\. b) Withal, this diffidence of self must be ever attended by a perfect trust in God. For God will never allow us to be tempted beyond our strength. He does not ask of us the impossible. He either gives us immediately the grace of resisting temptations or the grace of praying for the help necessary to overcome them.[3] “One must, then,” says Father Olier[4] “withdraw interiorly into Jesus Christ to find in Him the power of resistance to temptation… He wills that we be tried, so that, warned thereby of our weakness and of the need we have of His help, we may withdraw into Him to find in Him the strength which we lack.” If the temptation becomes more violent we must fall on our kness and lift our hands to Heaven to invoke the assistance of God. When all these precautions have been taken one may infallibly count on God’s help: “And God is faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted above that which you are able:but will make also with temptation issue, that you may be able to bear it.”[1] We must not, then, have too much dread of temptation before it comes. That would be a way of bringing it on. Nor must we stand in dread of it when it actually assails us, since with reliance on God we are invincible. 1111\. B) The Flight from Dangerous Occasions. a) The mutual attraction that exists between the sexes creates dangers for those vowed to celibacy. Hence, useless meetings must be dispensed with, and when meetings are necessary, the danger must be made remote.[2] This is why the spiritual direction of women must be conducted exclusively in the confessional, as we have noted in n. 546. Two things we have to protect: our virtue and our good name. The one and the other make extreme reserve imperative. b) Children of graceful appearance, of a joyful and affectionate nature, may likewise be a source of danger. One loves to look at them, to caress them, and, if one be not on guard one may be led to familiarities that perturb the senses. This disturbance is a warning given us by God, to make us understand that we must desist and that we have even proceeded too far. Let us recall to mind that those children have Guardian Angels who look upon the face of God; that they are the living temples of the Holy Trinity and members of Christ. Then we shall more easily treat them with a holy reverence while we show them real affection. 1112\. c) In a general way, humility causes us to repress the desire to please, which prepares the way for many a fall. This desire, which proceeds both from vanity and from a natural longing for affection, is manifested by an exaggerated concern for our personal appearance, over-carefulness in dress, an affected pose, tender language, caressing glances, the habit of complimenting others upon their exterior accomplishments.[1] This manner of acting soon attracts notice, especially in a young ecclesiastic, in a priest, or a religious. He soon jeopardizes his good name; and would that he stop before he likewise imperils his virtue! 1113\. C) Humility, finally, inspires us with that candid frankness toward our spiritual director which is so necessary to avoid the snares of the enemy. St. Ignatius rightly says that “when the enemy of man wishes to lead a just soul into error by his tricks and ruses, he wants above all that such a soul listen to him and keep his words secret. But should that soul confide all to an enlightened confessor, Satan is chagrined, because he knows that all his malice will become impotent the moment his attempts are detected and brought out into the light.”[2] It is especially in matters of chastity that this wise advice applies. If we are faithful to disclose humbly and candidly our temptations to our spiritual director, we are warned in time of the dangers to which we are exposed, and we take the means suggested by him. A temptation laid bare is a temptation already overcome. If, on the contrary, trusting to our own lights we fail to seek advice, under the pretext that a temptation is not a sin, we fall easily into the snares of the great seducer of souls. 2° MORTIFICATION THE GUARDIAN OF CHASTITY We have already explained the necessity and the principal forms of mortification (n. 755-790). We shall recall here the points that bear more directly upon the present subject. Because the poison of impurity seeps through every opening, we must know how to mortify both our exterior and our interior senses, as well as the affections of the heart. 1114\. A) The body, we have said (n. 771 and foll.), must be disciplined, and if need be, chastised that it may remain subject to the soul: “But I chastise my body and bring it into subjection: lest perhaps, when I have preached to others, I myself should become a castaway.”[3] From this principle arises the necessity of sobriety, at times of fasting, or of some other exterior forms of penance; also the need, at certain periods and especially in the spring of the year, of a less rich diet to abate the mounting surge of the blood and soothe the ardors of concupiscence. Nothing is to be neglected that may ensure the dominion of the soul over the body. There should be no protracted hours of sleep, and as a general principle we must not remain in bed of mornings, once we are awake and are unable to fall asleep again. Each of our bodily senses needs to be mortified. 1115\. a) The just Job had made a pact with his eyes that they should not look upon such persons as could prove a source of temptation to him: “I made a covenant with my eyes, that I would not so much as think upon a virgin.”[1] The Book of Ecclesiasticus carefully recommends not to fasten our glances upon a maiden and to turn our eyes from a beautiful woman: “For many have perished by the beauty of a woman, and thereby lust is enkindled as a fire.”[2] All these counsels have a good psychological foundation. The eye acts as stimulus to the imagination, this enkindles the desire, and the latter solicits the will. If the will yields consent, sin enters into the soul. 1116\. b) Speech and hearing are mortified by reserve in conversation. This reserve is not common even among Christian men and women. The reading of novels and the frequenting of theatres cause them to speak freely of many a subject that should be passed over in silence. Likewise, they want to keep informed about the scandals that occur in the world. At other times they chat pleasantly about things of a more or less risky nature. A sort of unwholesome curiosity finds delight in such pleasantries and reports, the imagination is fed on them and visualizes in detail the descriptions given, the senses react and often the will ends by taking culpable pleasure. And so it is that St. Paul rightly denounces evil associations as a source of corruption: “Evil communications corrupt good manners.”[3] The same Apostle says elsewhere: “Obscenity, or foolish talking, or scurrility, which is to no purpose… let it not so much as be named among you.”[4] Experience shows that sterling souls have been perverted through the unwholesome curiosity aroused by imprudent conversations. 1117\. c) In the sense of touch there lurks a special danger (n. 879). Father Perreyve understood this well when he wrote the following:[5] “More than ever, O Lord, I consecrate my hands to Thee. These hands are to receive priestly consecration within three days. On the morrow of the third day they will touch, hold, handle Thy Body and Thy Blood. I want to reverence these hands, honor them as hallowed instruments dedicated to Thy service and that of Thy altars…” When we recollect that in the morning we have held within our hands an All-holy God, we are more ready to abstain from whatever could soil their purity. Hence, deep reverence for our own person; hence reverence for others, treating all with the accepted marks of courtesy, but abstaining from any sentimental feeling or ill-ordered affection. To a priest who asked St. Vincent de Paul if it were expedient to feel the pulse of a dying woman, the Saint replied: “That practice must be carefully avoided, for the evil spirit might easily make use of it to tempt the living and even the dying. The devil, in this last moment uses any and every device to ensnare a soul… You should never touch eitheir girl or woman under any pretence whatever.”[1] 1118\. B) The interior senses are no less exposed to danger than are the exterior. Even when we modestly lower our eyes, importunate memories and obsessing images still pursue us. St. Jerome complained of this even in the solitude of the desert where, though parched by the burning sun and living in a bare cell, he would feel himself carried in fancy mid the pleasures of Rome.[2] He therefore urges instant riddance of such fancies: “You must never let the suggestion of evil grow on you… Slay the enemy while he is small; and that you may not have a crop of tares, nip the evil in the bud.”[3] The enemy must be strangled before his strength grows and the tares pulled up by the root before they sprout, otherwise the soul is invaded, obsessed by temptation, and the temple of God becomes the haunt of demons: “Let not the temple of the Blessed Trinity become a place where demons shall dance and sirens make their dens.”[4] 1119\. In order to escape these dangerous fancies it is important not to indulge in the reading of such novels or attend such theatrical representations, where inhuman passions and chiefly that of love are presented in a vivid and realistic fashion. Such descriptions cannot but trouble the imagination and the senses. They persistently recur in our leisure moments, impart to temptation a more vivid and more alluring form, and at times extort consent. Now, St. Jerome remarks that virginity is forfeited not merely through exterior but also by interior acts: “And so, virginity is lost even by thought.”[5] Furthermore, the Saints exhort us to mortify the imagination and useless day-dreaming. For, experience shows that these are frequently followed by dangerous sensual images, and that, therefore, if we wish to prevent the latter, we must quickly banish the former. It is only by so doing that we gradually succeed in subjecting the imagination to the service of the will. This is particularly necessary to the priest, who by the very reason of his ministry, is the recipient of confidences of a delicate nature. No doubt, he has the grace of state not to take any pleasure therein, but this on condition that upon leaving the confessional he does not voluntarily dwell upon what he has heard. Otherwise, his virtue would be put to a severe test, and God has not bound Himself to vouchsafe His help to imprudent souls that rush headlong into danger: “He that loveth danger shall perish in it.”[1] 1120\. C) The heart needs to be mortified just as much as the imagination. It is one of the highest and noblest of faculties, but it is also a source of danger. By religious vow or by priestly ordination, we consecrate our heart to God and renounce the joys of family life. Still, the heart remains open to affection; and if it be true that we have special graces, they are graces for the struggle, and they demand of us great vigilance and great effort. Besides the dangers common to all, the priest encounters in his ministry some peculiar to himself. He may become unconsciously attached to the persons to whom he does good, and they in turn may feel naturally moved to manifest their gratitude. Therefrom arise mutual affections; these are supernatural at first, but unless carefully controlled, they easily descend to the plane of natural, sentimental and absorbing attachments. Indeed, it is easy to deceive ourselves, “Oftentimes,” says St. Francis de Sales, “we imagine we love persons for God’s sake, whilst in reality we love them for the sake of the pleasure we experience in their company.” A famous text, attributed to St. Augustine, shows us the successive degrees through which we pass from spiritual to carnal love: “Spiritual love engenders affectionate love, affectionate love devoted love, devoted love tender love, and tender love carnal love.” 1121\. In order to escape such a misfortune, we must ask ourselves from time to time whether or not we see in ourselves any signs of friendship that is too natural and sentimental.[2] Father de Valuy[3] says that such a friendship exists: “If the presence of a person begins to captivate our eyes, or his agreeable disposition to thrill our heart; if we offer tender greetings, speak tender words, cast tender glances, make small gifts, exchange smiles more eloquent than words and permit liberties that little by little lead to familiarity; if we seek opportunities to meet alone, to prolong these meetings interminably and to renew them for no apparent reason; if we speak little of divine things but a great deal of self and of mutual esteem; if we praise, flatter or excuse each other; if we complain bitterly of the warnings of superiors, of the obstacles they place in the way of our meetings and of the suspicions in which they seem to indulge;… if we experience uneasiness and sadness at the absence of our friend; if we are distracted in prayer at the thought of him, and recommend him to God with extra-ordinary fervor; if we have his image deeply engraved on our mind, and are preoccupied with the thought of him day and night, anxiously wondering as to his whereabouts, as to the time of his return, and as to his affection for others; if we experience unwonted joy at his reappearance, undergo a species of martyrdom when again he must depart, and strive in a thousand and one ways to bring about a reunion.” Let no one try to reassure himself by citing the piety of the persons to whom he thus attaches himself, for the holier they are, the more they attract us. Besides, such persons imagine that the affection they bear a priest holds no dangers whatever, and may, therefore, allow their affection to grow without fear. It is imperative, then, that the priest keep them at a distance by his own reserve. 3° APPLICATION TO STUDY AND TO DUTIES OF STATE 1122\. One of the most profitable forms of mortification is the avoidance of idleness by an earnest application to ecclesiastical studies and to the faithful fulfilment of the duties of state. Thereby the dangers of idleness are removed: “For idleness hath taught much evil.”[1] For one demon that tempts a busy man there are a thousand evil spirits that tempt an idle one. What do we do, as a matter of fact, when we are not engaged in any useful task? We muse, day-dream, read light literature, indulge in protracted visits, hold conversations of a more or less dangerous nature, while our imagination teems with vain fancies, our heart drifts on towards sentimental affections and our soul, laid open to all sorts of temptations, finally yields to sin. On the contrary, when we become absorbed in study or the work of the ministry, our mind is filled with wholesome thoughts,[2] and our heart soars to worthy and pure affections. Our one absorbing thought is of souls, whilst the very multiplicity of occupations leaves no opportunity whatever for any inordinate friendships. If at any time temptation makes its appearance, the self-mastery acquired through assiduous work enables us to head it off far more quickly, for study and work make their wonted demands upon our attention, and we soon tear ourselves away from reveries to busy ourselves with the concrete realities that take up the greater part of our life. 1123\. Hence, it is a great service to seminarians and priests to inspire them with a taste for study; to teach them how to avoid idleness, even in holiday time, and how to turn to profit every moment of their life. When one can help them sketch a plan of study that they can follow in the ministry, or aid them in the preparation of some course of instructions, or interest them in some special question, one does them a signal service; for if they have no such program, they are liable to waste precious time, whilst with it, they bring to their task a greater enthusiasm and more perseverance. 4° ARDENT LOVE FOR JESUS AND HIS BLESSED MOTHER 1124\. If work preserves the mind from dangerous thoughts, love for God shields the heart from sentimental affections, and thus spares us many a temptation. Man’s heart is made for love. Priestly ordination or religious profession do not change this affective part of our nature, but they help us raise our affections to a supernatural plane. If we love God with our whole soul, if we love Jesus Christ above all things, we shall be less inclined to give our affections to creatures. St. John Climacus remarks: “He is truly virtuous upon whose spirit heavenly beauty is so engraved, that he deigns not to cast a look upon earthly beauty, and thus feels not the burning of that fire which consumes the hearts of other men.”[1] 1125\. But in order that love for Jesus may produce these effects, it must be intense, generous, and absorbing. Then it will bring us a threefold blessing: 1) It will so fill the mind and the heart that we no longer give a thought to human affections. If at times they make their way to our heart, we turn them aside, repeating these words of St. Agnes: “I am espoused to Him Whom the Angels serve, at Whose beauty the very sun and moon stand in awe .” It is easy to understand how all creatures vanish and lose their charm in the presence of Him Who is the fulness of beauty, of goodness and of power. 2) Should we unfortunately become entangled in any ill-ordered affections, Jesus Who cannot suffer strange gods in our heart, will reproach us severely and thus make us all the stronger for the fight against them. 3) Lastly, He will Himself protect with jealous care the hearts of those who give themselves to Him. He will come to our aid at the time of temptation and will strengthen us against the seductions of creatures. This generous love for Jesus we draw from prayer, from the reception of Holy Communion, from silent adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, and we render it habitual and permanent through that intimate union with Our Lord which we described above, in number 153. 1126\. To this we add a great devotion to Mary, the Virgin Undefiled. Her name breathes forth purity, and, it seems, no sooner do we confidently invoke Her, than temptation is put to flight. If we consecrate ourselves entirely to this Good Mother (n. 170-176), She will watch over us as Her very own, and help us to repel successfully the most harassing temptations. Let us, then, delight in the recitation of the prayer, O Domina mea, so powerful against impure suggestions, and the Ave Maris Stella, especially the following strophe: Virgin of all virgins, Thee our queen we seek; Fire with love our bosoms, Make us chaste and meek. And if we are ever worsted in the struggle, we must not forget that the Immaculate Heart of Mary is also the sure refuge of sinners, that through the invocation of Her Name we shall find the grace of repentance, followed by the grace of absolution. Who could better ensure our perseverance than the Virgin most Faithful? ## § II. Humility [1] This virtue could in some respects be connected with the virtue of justice, since it inclines us to mete out to ourselves what are our just deserts. However, it is generally related to the virtue of temperance, because it moderates the sense we have of our own worth. We shall explain: 1° its nature; 2° its various degrees; 3° its excellence; 4° the means to practice it. I. Nature of Humility 1127\. 1° Humility is a virtue that was unknown to the Pagans. For them humility connoted something vile, abject, servile or ignoble. It was not so with the Jews. Enlightened by faith, the best among them, conscious of their own nothingness and of their wretchedness, patiently accepted trials as a means of expiation. God, on His part stooped down to help them; He delighted in the prayer of the humble, and pardoned the contrite and humbled sinner. Therefore, when Our Lord came to preach humility and meekness, the Jews were able to understand Him. As for us, we understand Him even better, after reflecting on the examples of humility He has given us in His hidden life, during His public ministry, and in His passion, nay, gives us still in His Eucharistic life. Humility may be defined as a supernatural virtue, which, through the self-knowledge it imparts , inclines us to reckon ourselves at our true worth and to seek self-effacement and contempt. More succinctly, St. Bernard[1] defines it as “a virtue whereby man, through a true knowledge of himself, becomes despicable in his own eyes.” This definition will be better understood after we have explained the basis of humility. 1128\. The Basis of this virtue. Humility has a twofold basis: truth and justice. Truth causes us to know ourselves just as we are; justice inclines us to act upon that knowledge. A) To attain self-knowledge, says St. Thomas, we must see what in us belongs to God, and what to ourselves. Now, whatever there is in us of good, comes from God and belongs to Him; whatever there is of evil, proceeds from ourselves: “In man two things may be considered: what there is of God, and what there is of man. Of man there is whatever points to defect; but of all that makes for salvation and perfection.”[2] Justice, then, absolutely demands that we render to God, and to Him alone, all the honor and all the glory: “To the king of ages, immortal, invisible, the only God, be honor and glory…[3] Benediction and glory, and wisdom, and thanksgiving, honor and power and strength, to our God.”[4] Undoubtedly, there is some good in us—our natural being and especially our supernatural privileges. Humility allows us to see and admire this good, but in such wise only that when we contemplate the gifts and graces of God in us, it is Him, and not ourselves that we admire, just as when we admire a work of art we give credit to the artist, not to the canvas. 1129\. B) Besides, the fact of being sinners condemns us to humiliation. In a certain sense, of ourselves we are but sin, since born in sin, we keep within us concupiscence, which leads to sin. a) Upon our entrance into the world, we are already tainted by original sin, from which only the mercy of God can cleanse us. b) How many actual sins have we not committed from the dawn of reason! If we have committed even one mortal sin, then on that score we deserve eternal humiliations. Even if we have fallen into but venial sins, we must remember that the least sin constitutes an offence against God, a wilful violation of His law, an act of rebellion whereby we prefer our will to His. A whole lifetime of penance and humiliation would not suffice to atone for this, e) Furthermore, even after our regeneration, we still keep within ourselves strong tendencies to all kinds of sin, so much so that, according to St. Augustine, it is due to God’s grace that we have not committed every sin in the world.[1] In justice, then, we must love humiliations and accept all reproaches. If we are told that we are miserly, dishonest, proud, we must acknowledge it, since we have within us the inclination to each of these defects. Father Olier rightly comes to the conclusion that “in sickness, in persecution, in contempt, and any other affliction we must take God’s part against ourselves and acknowledge that we justly deserve all that and more; that He has a perfect right to use every creature for our punishment, and that we must adore the great mercy He uses towards us, knowing full well that according to His justice we would fare far worse.”[2] Such is the twofold basis of humility. Being nothing of ourselves, we must love oblivion and self-effacement: to be unknown, to be reckoned as nothing. As sinners we deserve every kind of humiliation. II\. The Various Degrees of Humility There are different classifications of the degrees of this virtue according to the various points of view taken. We shall note the principal ones, which can be reduced to three: that of St. Benedict, that of St. Ignatius and that of Father Olier. 1130\. 1° The Twelve Degrees of St. Benedict.[3] Cassian discerned ten different degrees in the practice of humility. St. Benedict completed this division, adding two others. To understand this arrangement, we must know that St. Benedict conceived humility as “an habitual attitude of soul which regulates the entire range of a monk’s relations with God, as a sinful creature and as an adopted son.” This concept is founded upon reverence towards the Almighty and comprises besides humility properly so-called, obedience, patience and modesty. Of these twelve degrees, seven refer to interior and five to exterior actions. 1131\. Among the interior acts he places: 1\) The fear of God ever present to the mind and causing us to keep the commandments. This fear is, in the first place, fear of punishment, then reverential fear, which terminates in adoration: “The fear of the Lord is holy, enduring forever and ever.”[1] 2\) Obedience, or the submission of our will to God’s. For if we fear and reverence God, we shall do His will in all things. This obedience is, indeed, an act of humility, since it is the expression of our dependence upon God. 3\) Obedience to Superiors out of love for God. It is more difficult to submit to Superiors than to God Himself. More faith is needed to see God in the person of one’s Superiors; likewise a more perfect self-denial is needed because this obedience extends to many more things. 4\) Patient obedience even in the most difficult things, bearing injuries without murmer, even and above all, when humiliation comes from Superiors. To succeed in this, one must consider the heavenly recompense awaiting us and the sufferings and humiliations of Jesus. 5\) The avowal of secret faults, thoughts included, to the Superior,[2] apart from sacramental confession. This act of humility is a powerful check. The prospect of having to lay bare the most secret faults halts one on the brink of the abyss. 6\) The willing acceptance of all privations, of menial offices, considering oneself unworthy of even such tasks. 7\) To consider oneself in all sincerity as the lowest of men. This is a degree of humility rarely found. The Saints attain it by saying to themselves that if others had received as many graces as they, they would have made much better use of these divine gifts. 1132\. These interior acts manifest themselves in exterior actions, the principal ones being: 8\) Avoidance of singularity: to do nothing out of the ordinary, but to be satisfied with what is sanctioned by the common rule, the examples of our seniors, and accepted customs. To wish to be singular is a sign of pride. 9\) Silence: to know how to remain silent as long as conversation is not addressed to us, or as long as there is no good reason to speak. There is a great deal of vanity behind our readiness to talk. 10\) Moderation of laughter: St. Benedict does not condemn laughter in so far as it is an expression of spiritual joy, but only laughter of a vulgar kind,uncouth laughter, sneering laughter, or the habitual disposition to laugh boisterously, and upon the least provocation, all of which shows little regard for God’s presence and little humility. 11\) Reserve in speech: when one speaks, it must be done quietly and humbly, with all the gravity and propriety of the wise man. 12\) Modesty of behavior: to walk, sit, and hold oneself erect; to practice modesty of the eyes without affectation, to keep one’s thoughts fixed on God, reflecting that one is not worthy of raising one’s eyes to heaven: Lord, I am not worthy, a sinful man, to raise my eyes to heaven. After explaining the various degrees of humility, St. Benedict adds that they lead to the love of God, that perfect love that excludes fear: “Therefore,after having ascended all these degrees of humility, the monk soon reaches the love of God, that perfect love that casteth out fear,” This, then, is the goal whither humility leads. The way is rough, but the heights to which it leads us are those of Divine Love. 1133\. 2° The Three Degrees of St. Ignatius. Towards the end of the Second Week of the Exercises, before the Rules for Election, St. Ignatius proposes three degrees of humility, which are at bottom three degrees of selfabnegation. 1\) The first degree consists “in perfect submission to the law of God, so that we should be ready to refuse the empire of the whole world, or even to sacrifice our lives, rather than transgress any precept which obliges us under pain of mortal sin.” This degree is essential for every Christian who wants to remain in the state of grace. 2\) The second is more perfect. “It consists in the indifference of the soul towards riches or poverty, honor or shame, health or sickness, provided the glory of God and the salvation of souls are equally secured; further, that no consideration of interest or temporal disgrace, not even the consideration of immediate death, should be capable of drawing us into deliberate venial sin.” This is a disposition already implying great perfection, and few souls attain it. 3\) “The third is most perfect. It embodies the first two, and it goes further, preferring, for the sole love of Jesus Christ and from the wish to resemble Him the more, poverty to riches, shame to honors, etc…, even though our salvation and the glory of God would be assured by either” This is the degree of perfect souls; it is the love of the Cross and the love of humiliation, in union with Christ and out of love for Him. When a soul has arrived thus for, it is already on the highroad to sanctity. 1134\. 3° The Three Degrees of Humility according to Father Olier. After having explained in his “Catechism for an Interior Life” the necessity of humility and the way to combat pride, Father Olier in his Introduction to Christian Life and Virtues, goes on to explain the three degrees of interior humility proper to fervent souls. a) The first degree is to rejoice in the knowledge of self, the knowledge of one’s vileness, of one’s nothingness, of one’s defects, of one’s sins. The mere knowledge of these miseries does not constitute humility; there are some who discover their faults, but who are saddened at the sight of them, and strive to find in themselves something good that will spare them the confusion they experience. This is an effect of pride. However, when one is pleased at the knowledge of one’s wretchedness, when one loves one’s own vile and abject condition one is truly humble. If one has the misfortune of falling into sin, one must, of course, detest it, but at the same time be pleased at the humiliation. To rejoice in one’s infirmities, one must remember that such a sentiment redounds to God’s glory, by the very fact that one’s littleness makes manifest God’s greatness, and one’s sins His holiness. In this way the soul acknowledges that it has no worth whatever, that of itself it is incapable of any good, and that all has its origin in God, that all depends on Him, and that all must be done through Him. b) The second degree is that of wanting to be known as vile, as base, as being nothing but sin, and to be considered as such by all men. In fact, if knowing our misery and being pleased at it we should still wish to be esteemed by men, we should be hypocrites, wanting to seem better than we really are. Alas! such is our tendency! Hence the chagrin we experience when our imperfections are discovered, the concern we have for the success of our undertakings, for gaining the esteem of men. To covet this esteem is to be a thief wishing to make his what belongs to the Sovereign Being. The humble soul, on the contrary, is unconcerned about the regard in which it is held. It is pained when praised, and would prefer a thousand injuries to a word of praise, since the former is based on truth, the latter on falsehood. c) The third degree is to want not merely to be known as a vile thing, but to be treated as such, as a base and contemptible being; it is to accept joyfully all the scorn and all the humiliation possible; in a word, it is to want to be treated according to our deserts. And what contempt is not due to nothingness, and above all, to sin, which removes us from the One Who is our true good, God? Thus, when God deigns to send us aridity of soul, interior desolations and reversals, we must take God’s part against ourselves, and acknowledge that He is right in rebuking us and our works. Likewise, if we are ill-treated by our superiors, our equals, and even our inferiors, we must rejoice at this as being most just, most profitable to us and most in accord with the desires of Jesus Christ. We must not even aspire to a high place in Heaven from a motive of pride. Indeed, we must love God as much as He wishes to be loved, and be faithful so that we mary attain to the degree of glory and bliss that He prepares for us; but with regard to our place in Heaven we must leave that entirely in God’s hands. “Then we attain complete self-effacement, and God alone lives and reigns within us.” 1135\. Conclusion. Each of these points of view concerning the degrees of humility as explained by St. Benedict, St. Ignatius, and Father Olier, has its foundation in fact. It is the duty of a spiritual director to advise the one which best harmonizes with his penitents state of soul. III\. The Excellence of Humility To be able to understand the language of the Saints on this subject we must differentiate between humility in itself and humility as the foundation of the other virtues. 1136\. 1° Considered in itself, says St. Thomas,[1] humility is inferior to the theological virtues, which have God Himself as their direct object; it is even inferior to certain moral virtues; for instance, prudence, religion, and legal justice which refers to the common good; however, (with the possible exception of obedience) humility is superior to all the other moral virtues, because of its universal character, and because it subordinates us to the divine order in all things. 1137\. 2° But, if we consider humility as being the key that opens the treasures of grace and as the foundation of all virtues, it is, as the Saints say, one of the most excellent of virtues. A) It is the key that lays open the riches of grace: “But to the humble He giveth grace.”[2] a) God knows that the humble soul does not take complacency in the graces He bestows, that it is not puffed up with vanity because of them, but rather that it refers all the glory to Him. Almighty God can therefore pour upon that soul the abundance of His favors, since His own glory will be thereby increased. On the other hand, He sees Himself obliged to withdraw His grace from the proud ?— “God resisteth the proud,”[1] — since they would appropriate it to their own ends and would glory therein. This God cannot suffer: “I will not give my glory to another.”[2] b) Besides, humility empties the soul of self-love and vain-glory, and thus creates there a vast capacity for grace, which God is ready to fill; for as St. Bernard says there is a close affinity between grace and humility: “The virtue of humility is always found closely associated with Divine grace.”[3] 1138\. B) Humility is likewise the foundation of all the virtues. If not the mother of all, it is at least their foster-mother, and this from a twofold point of view: first in the sense that without it there is no solid virtue, and then that with it all other virtues grow in depth and perfection. 1\) As pride is the great stumbling-block to faith, humility renders our faith more active, more ready, more firm, and even more enlightened: “Thou hast hid these things from the wise and prudent and hast revealed them to little ones.”[4] How much easier it is to subject the intellect to the authority of faith, if we are conscious of our dependence upon God! “Bringing into captivity every understandings unto the obedience of Christ.” Faith in turn,[5] revealing to us the infinite perfection of God and our own nothingness, grounds us in humility. 2\) The same occurs in the case of hope. The proud man trusts in himself and presumes overmuch in his own strength. He hardly thinks of imploring divine aid. The humble man, on the contrary, places all his hope in God, because he distrusts himself. Hope, in its turn, makes us more humble, because it shows us that the joys of heaven are so utterly beyond our powers that without the help of grace we could never attain them. 3\) The enemy of the love of God, of charity , is the love of self. It is, then, by the “emptying of self” that the love of God grows, which in turn deepens humility, for we delight in effacing ourselves before Him Whom we love. Therefore, St. Augustine rightly said that there is nothing more sublime than charity, and that only the humble practice it: “There is no higher road than that of charity, and none but the humble walk therein.”[6] There is likewise no surer way to practice charity towards the neighbor than that of humility, which throws a veil over his defects and makes us sympathize with his infirmities, instead of becoming impatient with him. 1139\. 4) Religion is all the better practiced the clearer we perceive that all must be offered in holocaust and sacrificed to God. 5\) Prudence demands humility. The humble are fond of reflecting and taking counsel before acting. 6\) Justice cannot be practiced without humility, for the proud man exaggerates his own rights to the detriment of those of the neighbor. 7\) Christian fortitude, proceeding as it does, not from self but from God, is not found except in those who, conscious of their weakness, find support in Him Who alone can strengthen them. 8\) Temperance and chastity, as we have seen, presuppose humility. 9\) Meekness and patience are never well practiced until we learn to accept humiliation. And so, it can be said that without humility there is no solid and lasting virtue, and that, on the other hand, through humility, all virtues grow and take deeper root in the soul. We may well conclude with the words of St. Augustine: “Dost thou wish to rise? Begin by descending. You plan a tower that shall pierce the clouds? Lay first the foundations on humility.”[1] The loftier the building, the deeper must be its foundations. IV\. The Practice of Humility 1140\. Beginners, as we have said (n. 838-844), wage war against pride; souls advanced in the spiritual life direct their efforts to the imitation of Our Lord’s humility. 1141\. 1° They strive to draw to themselves the humble dispositions of the soul of Christ. This is what St. Paul urges us to do: “Let this mind be in , which was also in Christ Jesus: Who being in the form of , thought it not robbery to be equal with G,but emptied Himself…”[2] We must, then, meditate frequently upon and strive to imitate the examples of humility given us by Our Lord in His hidden and public life, in His , and in His Eucharistic life. A) During His hidden life He practices humility chiefly under the form of self-effacement, a) He practices this self-effacement before His birth by hiding Himself for nine months in the virginal womb of Mary, where He conceals completely His Divine Attributes: “He emptied himself;”[3] by submitting Himself to Cæsar’s edict: “There went out a decree from Cæsar Augustus;”[4] by suffering uncomplainingly the rude refusals His Mother had to face: “There was no room for them in the inn; ”[5] above all, by being the object of the ingratitude of men, who thought not of making ready a place for Him in their hearts: “He came unto his own, and his own received him not.”[1] b) He likewise practices self-effacement at His birth: He appears as a poor infant, bound in swaddling clothes, placed in a manger, and laid upon a bit of straw: “You shall find the infant wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid in a manager.”[2] And this little Child is the Son of God, coequal with the Father, Uncreated Wisdom! c) He practices humility also in all the circumstances that follow His birth: like any ordinary child he is circumcised; He is obliged to flee into Egypt to escape the persecuting hand of Herod, whom with but one word He could reduce to dust, d) His life at Nazareth is but continued self-effacement. Hidden away in a small Galilean village, He at first helps His Mother in her household duties, then becomes an apprentice, a workman, and spends thirty years in obedience to two human beings. He, the Lord of the world, “was subject to them.”[3] We can well understand the words of Bossuet:[4] “My God! I stand aghast once more! Come, ye proud ones, behold this spectacle! Jesus, a carpenter’s son! Jesus, Himself a carpenter! Jesus, known only as a carpenter and as the son of a carpenter, and nothing more! ” 1142\. B) During the course of His public life Jesus does not cease to practice this forgetfulness of self to the extent compatible with His mission. He is, no doubt, obliged to proclaim both by word and deed that He is the Son of God; yet, He does so in a discreet, measured way, sufficiently clear to reach the minds of men of good will, but not with such evidence as to force assent. His humility appears in everything He does. a) He surrounds Himself with Apostles, ignorant and uncouth, and therefore little esteemed, eleven fishermen and a publican. He shows a marked preference for those whom the world despises: the poor, sinners, the afflicted, little children, those disowned by the world. He lives by aims and has no place that He can call His home, b) His teaching is plain and simple, within the reach of all, and His similitudes like His parables are taken from ordinary, every-day life. He does not seek to excite the admiration of men, but to instruct them and to touch their hearts. c) His miracles are of rare occurrence, and when He does perform them He often charges His beneficiaries to speak of them to no man. There is no studied austerity in His life: He eats like every one else, He attends a wedding-feast at Cana, and some banquets to which He is invited. He shuns popularity; He does not hesitate when necessary to displease His disciples: “This is a hard saying,’’[5] and He takes to flight when the people would make Him king, d) If we look into the innermost sentiments of His soul, we see how He wishes to live in dependence upon God.[6] He speaks only to give expression to the doctrine of Him Who sent Him: “I speak not of myself…”[1] “My doctrine is not mine, but his that sent me; ”[2] He does nothing of Himself but only in deference to His Father: “I cannot of myself do anything… But the Father who abideth in me, he doth the works. ”[3] Thus it is not His own glory that He seeks, but that of the Father, and for this cause only He lives on earth: “I seek not my own glory…”[4] “1 have glorified thee on the earth.”[5] Nay more, He, the Lord of Creation, becomes the servant of men: “The Son of man is not come to be ministered unto, but to minister.”[6] In a word, oblivious of self; He continually immolates Himself for God and men. 1143\. C) This is all even more apparent in His Passion where He practices abject humility. He, Holiness itself, wills to bear the weight of our iniquities and suffer the penalty, as if He were guilty: “Him, who knew no sin, he hath made sin for us.”[7] a) Hence proceed that sorrow, that dejection, that weariness, which He feels at Gethsemane at seeing Himself loaded with our sins: “And he began to fear and to be heavy… My soul is sorrowful even unto death.”[8] b) He bears the outrages heaped upon Him: betrayed by Judas, He has for him only friendly words: “Friend, whereto art thou come?”[9] Deserted by His Apostles, He does not cease to love them. Arrested, bound like a common criminal, He heals Malchus wounded by the hand of Peter. Delivered to the rabble, He suffers their affronts in silence. Calumniated, He does not justify Himself, and utters not a word except to make answer to the abjuration of the high-priest in whom He respects the authority of God. He knows full well that His answer will bring upon Him the penalty of death, still He speaks the truth. Treated like a fool by Herod, He holds His peace; He speaks not a single word nor works a single miracle to vindicate His honor. The people to whom He had done so much good choose Barabbas instead of Him, and still Jesus ceases not to suffer for their conversion. Unjustly condemned by Pilate, He keeps silence, He lets Himself be scourged, crowned with thorns, vilified like a mock-king on the stage; He accepts without murmur the heavy cross that is laid upon His shoulders and allows Himself to be crucified without a word of complaint. Insulted and sneered at by His enemies, He prays for them and excuses them before His Father. Deprived of all heavenly comfort, deserted by His disciples, His dignity as man, His reputation, His honor, all set at naught, He suffers it seems every species of humiliation that the mind of man can conceive, and He can say with far greater truth than the Psalmist: “am a worm and no man: the reproach of men and the outcast of the people.”[10] It is for us sinners, it is in our stead, that He endures so heroically all those outrages without a murmur: “Who, when He was reviled, did not revile: when he suffered\\ he threatened not, but delivered himself to him that judged him unjustly.”[11] How then can we, who are so full of guilt, ever complain, even should we be at times unjustly accused ? 1144\. D) His Eucharistic life in the tabernacle reproduces these different examples of humility. a) Therein the Divinity of Jesus Christ is veiled to a greater extent than it was in the Crib and on Calvary: “On the Cross was veiled Thy Godhead’s splendor. Here Thy Manhood lieth hidden too. ”[1] And yet, from the recesses of the tabernacle, it is He Who is the first and principal cause of all the good done in the world, He the One that inspires, strengthens and comforts all apostles, martyrs and virgins. And He chooses to be hidden, to be unknown, to be accounted as nothing. b) How many insults, how many affronts does He not receive in the Sacrament of His love, not only from unbelievers who refuse to acknowledge His Presence, from the impious who profane His Sacred Body, but also from Christians, who either out of weakness or shame make sacriligious communions, even from souls consecrated to His service who at times forget Him and leave Him alone in His tabernacle: “Could you not watch one hour with me?[2] Instead of complaining He says to us incessantly: “Come to me, all you that labor and are heavy burdened, and I will refresh you.”[3] Truly, we have here all the examples that we need to sustain and strengthen us in the practice of every form of the virtue of humility. And when we reflect further that at the same time Christ has also merited for us the grace of imitating these examples, how can we hesitate to follow Him? 1145\. 2° We shall now examine the manner in which we can, after Our Lord’s example, practice humility towards God, towards our neighbor and with regard to ourselves. A) Towards God, humility is manifested chiefly in three ways: a) By the spirit of religion, whereby we honor God as the plenitude of being and perfection. This we do by lovingly and joyfully acknowledging our nothingness and our sinfulness, glad to proclaim in this way the self-sufficiency that is God’s and the perfection of His holiness. Thence spring those sentiments of adoration, of praise, of filial fear and filial love; thence comes the heart’s cry: Thou alone art holy, Thou alone art Lord Thou alone art most high. These sentiments issue forth from our hearts not only when we pray, but also when we contemplate God’s work: His natural works wherein are mirrored the perfections of the Maker, His supernatural works wherein the eyes of faith perceive a real likeness, a participation in the Divine life. 1146\. b) By a spirit of thankfulness, which sees in God the source of all the natural and supernatural gifts we contemplate in ourselves and in others. Then, like the Blessed Virgin, and in union with her, we glorify God for all the good He has bestowed upon us: “My soul doth magnify the Lord… He that is mighty hath done great things to me, and holy is His name.”[1] Thus, instead of priding ourselves upon such gifts, we refer to God all the honor that comes from them and acknowledge that we have often misused them. 1147\. c) By a spirit of dependence, which makes us confess our inability to do any good of ourselves. Convinced of this fact, we never begin any action without first placing ourselves under the influence of the Holy Ghost, without imploring His grace, which alone can supply for our deficiency. This should be practiced especially by spiritual directors, who in the exercise of their ministry must not glory in the confidence which their penitents show them, but candidly avow their insufficiency, and consult the Almighty before dispensing any advice. 1148\. B) As to the manner of practicing humility with regard to the neighbor, the principle that must guide us is the following: we must see in him all the good, natural and supernatural, which God has placed in him, and admire it without either envy or jealousy. On the other hand, we must throw a veil over his defects and overlook them, at least as long as it is not our duty to correct them. In accordance with this principle: a) we rejoice at the virtues and successes of others, for all these redound to God’s glory: “So that by all means… Christ be preached.”[2] Of course, we may wish to possess their virtues, but then we invoke the Holy Ghost that He may deign to give us a share therein, and thus a worthy emulation ensues: “And let us consider one another, to provoke unto charity and to good works.”[3] b) If we see our neighbor commit some fault, instead of becoming indignant, we pray for his conversion, and frankly acknowledge that, were it not for God’s grace, we should ourselves be guilty of greater sins (n. 1129). 1149\. c) This is the attitude of mind that really enables us to consider ourselves inferior to others: “In humility, let each esteem others better than themselves.”[4] We may well reflect especially, if not exclusively, upon the good there is in others and the evil there is in ourselves. The following is the advice of St. Vincent de Paul to his disciples:[5] “If, then, we study to know ourselves thoroughly, we shall find in all we think, in all we say, in all we do regarding either the substance or the circumstances, that we are fully and completely surrounded with cause for shame and confusion; and if we do not flatter ourselves, we shall perceive that we are not only worse than other men, but even, in a certain sense, more wicked than the demons in hell. For, if these unfortunate spirits had had the graces that have been given to us, they would have made a thousand times better use of them.” One may ask how one can arrive at such a conclusion, since it does not always correspond objectively to the truth. Let us note, first of all, that this conviction is found in all the Saints, and, therefore, it must rest upon some solid foundation. The foundation is this: every man can and should judge himself; and when he knows himself intimately, he sees clearly that he is indeed guilty, and further, that there exist in him evil tendencies. From this he concludes that he must hold himself in contempt. Others, however, he should not and cannot judge, since he does not know their motives, which are essential elements for the appraisal of conduct. Neither does he know the measure of grace God has given to others, which grace, however, he must take into account in order to form a just appreciation of their actions. By judging self severely and not judging others, except leniently, one comes to the practical conclusion that one must assign to oneself a place below all others. 1150\. C) In the practice of humility with regard to ourselves, the following principle will guide us: while recognizing all the good that is in us in order to give thanks to God for it, we must consider above all what is defective: our nothingness, our helplessness, our sinfulness, so as ever to keep alive within us a sense of humiliation and shame. With the help of this principle it becomes easier to practice humility, which must extend to the whole man, to mind, heart and outward conduct. a) Humility of mind comprises chiefly four things: 1\) A proper distrust of self that prevents us from overrating our ability, and disposes us to feel humiliated at the ill-use we have made of the gifts of God. Such is the counsel of the Wise Man: “Seek not the things that are too high for thee, and search not into things above thy ability.”[1] This is what St. Paul recommended to the Christians of Rome: “By the grace that is given me, to all that are among you, not to be more wise than it behoveth to be wise, but to be wise unto sobriety and according as God hath divided to every one the measure of faith.”[2] 2\) In the use we make of our talents, we must not seek to make a display or to be praised, but to be useful and to do good. St. Vincent de Paul recommended this to his missionaries:[3] “To do otherwise would be to preach self, not Jesus Christ. And he, who preaches for applause, for praise, for esteem, to have his name on everybody: s tongue, what does he do? What does such a preacher do? He commits a sacrilege. Yes, a sacrilege! To make the word of God and things divine the means of acquiring a reputation! Yes, it is a sacrilege! ” 1151\. 3) We must practice intellectual docility, not only by submitting to the official decisions of the Church, but by heartily accepting pontifical directions even when they have not the character of infallibility, reflecting that there is in them greater wisdom than in our own judgments. 4\) This docility will prevent obstinacy in controverted questions. No doubt, it is our right to adopt whatever system appears to us as best founded, in questions where free discussion is in order, but is it not just and fair to allow the same freedom to others? 1152\. b) Humility of heart requires that instead of wishing for and seeking glory or honors, we be satisfied with our situation and prefer a hidden life to an exalted position: Love to be unknown and to be reputed as nothing. This humbleness of heart goes even further; it hides whatever could cause us to be loved and esteemed and it wishes for the last place not only in rank but also in the esteem of men: “Sit down in the lowest place.”[1] Indeed, at times it goes so far as to make us wish that our memory perish from the earth. Let us listen to St. Vincent de Paul:[2] “We should never turn or fix oiir eyes on what is good in us, but rather strive to know what is bad and defective; this is a great means of preserving humility. We ought not to dwell on the gift of converting souls nor on whatever other exterior talents we may have, for they are not ours; we are only the bearers of them, and even with these gifts we can lose our souls. For this reason, no one should flatter himself, nor take any complacency in himself, nor conceive any self-esteem because God works great things through him; he should rather humble himself and acknowledge that he is but a poor instrument which God deigns to employ.” 1153\. c) External humility should simply be the outward manifestation of our interior sentiments, still it may be said that exterior acts of humility react upon our interior dispositions to solidify and intensify them. Therefore, they must not be neglected. However, to them we must join real sentiments of humility, that is to say, the soul must be humbled together with the body. 1\) Poor lodgings, plain clothes, even worn and patched, as long as they be clean, foster humility. Fine lodgings and expensive attire easily inspire sentiments contrary to this virtue. 2\) A humble and unassuming posture, gait and behavior, devoid of affectation, help in the practice of humility;[3] humble occupations such as manual labor, mending one’s clothes, etc., produce the same result. 3\) The same may be said of the condescension, the marks of deference, the acts of courtesy shown to others. 4\) In our conversations, humility prompts us to let others talk about what is of interest to them and to speak little ourselves. Above all, it prevents us from speaking of ourselves and of whatever concerns us. It takes a saint to speak ill of self and mean it;[1] and to speak well of self is boasting. We must not, under the pretext of humility go to any extremes. St. Francis de Sales[2] says that “if some great servants of God have pretended to be fools, to render themselves more abject in the eyes of the world, we must admire, but not imitate them; for having had peculiar and extraordinary motives that induced them to this excess, no one ought thence to draw any consequence for himself.” Humility is, then, a most practical and sanctifying virtue; it extends to the whole man, and aids us in the practice of all the other virtues. ## § III. Meekness [3] 1154\. Our Lord rightly associates meekness with humility, since the former cannot be practiced without the latter. We shall treat: 1° of its nature, 2° of its excellence, 3° of its practice. I. Nature of the Virtue of Meekness 1155\. 1° Its Constituent Elements. Meekness is a complex virtue which comprises three principal elements: a) a certain self-mastery, which forestalls and checks impulses of anger; from this point of view it is related to temperance; b) tolerance of the failings of others, which demands patience and, therefore, the virtue of fortitude; c) forgiveness of injuries, and benevolence towards all, even our enemies; in this respect it is inclusive of charity. From this we see that it is a combination of virtues, rather than a distinct virtue. 1156\. 2° Meekness may be defined as a supernatural, moral virtue, by which we prevent and restrain anger, bear with the neighbor in spite of his and treat him with kindliness. Meekness is not that weakness of character which conceals deep resentment behind a suave demeanor. It is an interior virtue, existing both in the will and in the emotions, in order to make peace reign therein; but it is also outwardly manifested in word and gesture, by affability of manner.[1] It is exercised not only toward the neighbor, but also with regard to self and all beings animate or inanimate. II\. Its Excellence Meekness is excellent both in itself and in its effects. 1157\. 1° In itself, it is, as Father Olier[2] puts it, “the completeness of perfection in the Christian, for it presupposes in him absolute self-effacement and the death of all self-interest.” Hence, he adds: “True meekness is hardly found outside those innocent souls within which Jesus Christ has continually dwelt from the moment of their regeneration.” Penitent souls rarely possess it in all its perfection, because few of them labor with sufficient energy and constancy to destroy the faults they have contracted. Thus Bossuet tells us that “the true mark of innocence whether preserved from the beginning or recovered, is meekness.”[3] 1158\. 2° The great benefit meekness brings us is the reign of peace in the soul, peace with God, peace with the neighbor, peace with ourselves. a) Peace with God, because it makes us accept all events, even the most adverse, with calm and serenity, as means of growing in virtue, and especially in the love of God: “And we know,” says St. Paul, “that to them that love , all things work together unto good.”[4] b) Peace with our neighbor; for, in preventing and repressing the impulses of anger, meekness makes us bear with our neighbor’s faults and enables us to keep on good terms with others, or at least, to remain inwardly unruffled if others be provoked at us. c) Peace with ourselves. If we happen to commit a fault, or make a blunder, we do not become impatient or lose our temper; but we reproach ourselves quietly and kindly, and learn by the experience to be more on our guard. Thus we avoid the mistake of those who, “being overcome by anger, are angry for having been angry, and vexed to see themselves vexed.”[1] Thus, we preserve our peace, which is one of the greatest blessings. III\. The Practice of the Virtue of Meekness. 1159\. 1° Beginners exercise themselves in this virtue by fighting anger and the desire for revenge, as well as every impulse of passion stirring in the soul (n. 861-863). 1160\. 2° Souls advanced in the way of perfection strive to attract to themselves the meekness of Jesus, which He teaches so admirably by word and example.[2] A) Our Lord attaches such great importance to this virtue, that He had it announced by the prophets as one of the marks of the promised Messias, and had the fulfilment of this prophecy pointed out by the Evangelists.[3] 1161\. B) He offers Himself as a model of that meekness and invites us to become His disciples, because He is meek and humble of heart.[4] a) He fulfils perfectly the ideal of meekness described by the prophets. When He announces the Gospel, it is not with violence, animosity and bitterness, but with calm and serenity. He utters no shouts, no useless cries, no angry words; noise dies out and does no good. His manner is so mild that He does not break the bruised reed nor quench the smoking flax, that is, the spark of faith and love that still remain in the sinner’s soul. To draw men to Himself, He is neither melancholy nor impetuous. He is kindness and meekness itself, and He invites those who labor and are heavily laden to come and seek repose in Him. 1162\. b) Towards His Apostles: 1) His conduct is full of meekness: He bears with their faults, their ignorance, their rudeness; He proceeds tactfully with them, revealing to them the truth only by degrees and in the measure in which they can stand it, leaving to the Holy Ghost the care of finishing His work. He defends them against the unjust accusations of the Pharisees who reproached them with not observing the fasts. He reprimands them when they fail in meekness towards the children that gather round about Him, and when they would wish to bring down fire from Heaven on a village of Samaria. When Peter strikes Malchus with the sword. He upraids him; but He forgives him his threefold denial and makes him atone for it with a threefold profession of love. 2\) Furthermore, He preaches meekness to the apostolic workers: they must have the simplicity of the dove as well as the cunning of the serpent. They must be as lambs in the midst of wolves; they must not resist evil, but proffer the left cheek to him who strikes them on the right; they must yield their cloak rather than appear before the bar of justice, and they must pray for them that persecute them. 1163\. c) He readily forgives sinners, even the most guilty, as soon as He sees in them the least indication of repentance. It is with no small degree of delicacy that He elicits the avowals of the Samaritan woman and effects her conversion; that He pardons the adulteress and the penitent thief, for He is come to call, not the just, but sinners to repentance. Like the good shepherd, He goes in search of His stray sheep and brings it back to the fold upon His shoulders. He even gives His life for His sheep. If at times He speaks severlk to the Scribes and the Pharisees, it is precisely because they impose upon others unbearable burdens and thus hinder them from entering into the kingdom of God. d) Even with His enemies He is meek: Judas after his sin of treason hears himself called by the sweet name of friend. Upon the Cross He prays for His executioners and asks His Father to take account of their ignorance and pardon them. 1164\. C) In order to imitate Our Lord we must: a) avoid quarrels, harsh or hurtful words and actions, so as not to frighten away the timid. We must strive never to render evil for evil, to avoid all abruptness of manner, and never to speak while in an angry mood. b) We must try to treat with due regard all those that approach us; to present to all a pleasant and affable mien, even if they be a cause of fatigue or boredom to us; to be especially kind to the poor, the afflicted, the sick, sinners, the timid, children; to soothe with a few kind words the sting which the reprimands we are called upon to administer may leave; to be ever ready to render service, at times to do even more than we are asked and, above all, to do so with good grace. We must, if need be, be ready to bear affronts, and to turn the left cheek to him who strikes us on the right. 1165\. 3° Perfect souls strive to imitate the very meekness of God, as Father Olier[1] remarks: “He is meekness itself, and when He wishes to share it with a soul, He makes His abode therein in such a way that nothing of the flesh remains in it, but is all absorbed in God, in His being, His substance, His perfections, so that all that it does is done in meekness, and even when moved by zeal, it is always in a meek manner, because bitterness and harshness no longer have any part in it, just as they can have no part in God Himself.” 1166\. Conclusion. Not to be too long, we end here the explanation of the cardinal virtues, a) They discipline, school and perfect all our faculties by subjecting them to the dominion of reason and will. Thus, the original order that once prevailed in the soul, that is, the submission of the body to the soul, and the subjection of the lower faculties to the will, is gradually restored. b) The cardinal virtues do even more: not only do they eliminate the obstacles which impede our union with God, but they initiate that union. For the prudence we acquire is a participation in God’s wisdom, and our justice a participation in His justice; our fortitude proceeds from Him and unites us to Him; our temperance makes us share in the wondrous poise and harmony that exist in Him. When we yield obedience to our Superiors, it is He Whom we obey. Chastity is but a means of approaching the perfection of His purity. Humility creates a void in our soul solely that it may be filled with God, and our meekness is but a participation in the meekness of God. Thus, our union with God, begun by the practice of the moral virtues, will be perfected by the theological virtues, the object of which is God Himself. --- ![[maps/bibliography#^biblio-tan]] > [[at-sl-24|← Fortitude]] | [[at-spiritual-life-toc|TOC]] | [[at-sl-26|B2 Ch. III →]]