# Commentary on the Letter of Saint Paul to the Galatians **1:1-9** Unlike most Pauline letters, Galatians omits introductory expressions of praise and thanksgiving. Instead of his usual warmth, Paul opens with a sharp and confrontational tone, followed by an astonished rebuke (1:6-9). This tension is present throughout the epistle and comes to the surface in its many warnings (3:1; 4:11, 20; 5:1-12, 15; 6:7-9) **1:1 Paul an apostle:** From the outset Paul defends his apostleship. Because his opponents in Galatia apparently denied him authority on a par with the Twelve, he contends that his commission stems neither from human authority **(from men)** nor even from the original apostles **(through man).** Paul, like the Twelve, received his gospel directly from Jesus Christ (1:12; Acts 26:15-18; CCC 659) **1:2 all the brethren:** Not co-authors, but a group of fellow Christian supporters. **the churches:** Galatians is a circular letter directed to several congregations affected by the Judaizing crisis. It is disputed whether Paul was writing to those of North or South Galatia. *See introduction: *Destination.** . **1:3 Grace to you and peace:** A conventional Pauline greeting (Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:3; 2 Cor 1:2) **1:4 gave himself for our sins:** Anticipates the description of Christ\'s act of redemption in 3:13-14. Here and elsewhere Paul emphasizes that Jesus willingly offered himself as a sacrifice for our salvation (Gal 2:20; Eph 5:2; CCC 2824). **the present evil age:** Jewish theology distinguished between \"this age\", which is dominated by sin and death, and the \"age to come\" (Mt 12:32; Eph 1:21), when peace comes to reign in the cosmos and the powers of darkness are destroyed. Through Christ, the graces of the age to come are already pouring into the lives of believers, rescuing them from sin, selfishness, and Satan **1:6 I am astonished:** Paul is distressed that his readers have been so easily lured into error by false teachers (3:1). His concern for the integrity of the gospel is manifest through the severity of his language. **him who called you:** God, through the mediating grace of Christ (1:15; Rom 8:30). **a different gospel:** I.e., a false gospel at variance with Paul\'s apostolic teaching **1:7 some who trouble you:** The Judaizers, who labored to bring the Galatians under the yoke of circumcision and other burdensome laws of the Old Covenant (6:12-13). In doing so, they promoted a false gospel that implicitly denied the sufficiency of Christ\'s death for our salvation (2:21). Although our knowledge about these troublemakers is fragmentary, they seem to share the outlook and aims of Jewish traditionalists from Judea (Acts 15:1-5; 21:20-21) **1:10 trying to please men?:** It seems Paul was accused of subtracting circumcision from the requirements of Christian initiation in order to please the Gentiles. Ironically, it is the Judaizers who are the real men-pleasers, since they preach circumcision in order to avoid persecution by their Jewish kinsmen (6:12). Paul\'s willingness to preach the true gospel in the face of persecution is evidence that he seeks only the approval of God (5:11; Acts 14:19-22) **1:12 through a revelation:** Paul received his gospel directly from Christ, independent of apostolic tradition and instruction (Acts 26:12-18; CCC 153, 442). It is thus impossible that his message would conflict with that of the Jerusalem apostles who were also instructed by Christ, and in any case Paul has verified it with them (Gal 2:2; Acts 15:2). Notice that Paul is focusing on the foundational message of faith and salvation in Christ; other things, such as creeds and liturgical traditions, were indeed passed along to him by others (1 Cor 11:23-26; 15:3-7) **1:13 I persecuted the Church:** A dark chapter in Paul\'s pre-Christian life, of which he was later ashamed (1 Cor 15:9; 1 Tim 1:13). His zeal for traditional Judaism spurred him to adopt violent and aggressive tactics that included harassing, imprisoning, and even executing early Christians (Acts 8:1-3; 9:1-2; 26:9-11). After his conversion, Paul\'s fiery enthusiasm was not lessened but given new direction by Christ **1:14 traditions of my fathers:** I.e., everything that comprised the Jewish way of life. This included biblical customs and institutions as well as Pharisaic practices that were devised to supplement and intensify the demands of the written Law (Mk 7:1-5). Paul studied under the famed Rabbi Gamaliel (Acts 22:3) and prided himself on a strict adherence to Jewish law (Phil 3:6) **1:15 set me apart:** Paul\'s apostolic mission was predetermined before his birth. • His language recalls Is 49:1 and Jer 1:5, where the messianic Servant and the prophet Jeremiah were consecrated before birth to be God\'s messengers. Paul\'s similar calling places him within this prophetic tradition **1:16 to reveal his Son:** In a vision on the road to Damascus (Acts 9:3-9; 1 Cor 9:1). It was then that Christ commissioned Paul to announce the gospel to the Gentiles and the sons of Israel (Acts 9:15-16). **I did not confer:** The RSV leaves the adverb \"immediately\" (Gk. *eutheos*) untranslated. Paul does not deny that he consulted the original apostles about his gospel (2:2, 6-10); he simply underscores that his *certainty* about its truth exempted him from the need to do so immediately after his conversion. **flesh and blood:** A Semitic idiom meaning \"human beings\" (Sir 14:18; Mt 16:17) # Word Study > [!NOTE] Word Study > *Accursed* (Gal 1:8) – *Anathema* (Gk.): \"under a divine curse\" or \"set apart for destruction\". The word is used six times in the NT, twice in Galatians. In the Greek OT, this word often translates a cultic and military term (Heb. *herem*) for the sacred ban that Yahweh placed on the enemy peoples of Canaan. Cities anathematized by the Lord were destined for utter destruction (Deut 20:17), and oftentimes the Israelites were forbidden to confiscate any booty for themselves (Deut 7:26; Josh 6:18). The same anathema was pronounced on cities where false prophets dared to lead God\'s people astray (Deut 13:12-18). The NT uses this term for a conditional curse that a person invokes upon himself when he swears an oath; it is a curse that will be activated if and when the individual breaks the oath (Acts 23:12-14). In Paul, an anathema is a curse that no Spirit-filled believer can invoke upon Jesus (1 Cor 12:3), yet it is precisely the divine judgment that awaits those who refuse to love the Lord (1 Cor 16:22). In Galatians, Paul pronounces an anathema upon heretical teachers who promote a false gospel. For the Hebrew background, see word study: *Devoted* at Josh 6:17. ^3wusjk **1:17 Arabia:** Probably the territory of the Nabatean kingdom that stretched from Damascus, north of Palestine, down to the Red Sea, south of Palestine. This was mostly a wilderness region where no one could have instructed Paul but God himself. • The reference to Arabia here and in 4:25 might suggest that Paul journeyed to the traditional site of Mt. Sinai (also called Horeb), where Moses and Elijah spoke intimately with the Lord (Ex 19:2-3; 1 Kings 19:8-18) **1:18 after three years:** Corresponds to the \"many days\" that passed before Paul was forced to flee Damascus (Acts 9:23-25). It was then that he traveled to Jerusalem for the first time as a Christian (Acts 9:26-29). **to visit:** The Greek expression is more precise, indicating that Paul \"interviewed\" Peter, as well as \"made his acquaintance\". He must have spent these two weeks gathering information about the life and ministry of Jesus. **Cephas:** Another name for Simon Peter, often used in Paul\'s letters (2:9, 11; 1 Cor 1:12; 9:5; 15:5). It transliterates an Aramaic word meaning \"rock\". See word study: **Peter** at Mt 16:18 **1:19 James:** Tradition reveres James as the first bishop of Jerusalem, being appointed to this position by the apostles. Early Christians called him \"the Just\" on account of his disciplined, prayerful, and virtuous life (Eusebius, *Ecclesiastical History* 2, 23; St. Jerome, *On Illustrious Men* 2). See note on Acts 12:17. **the Lord\'s brother:** Not a blood brother, but a near kinsman (CCC 500). See note on Mt 12:46 **1:20 before God, I do not lie:** A mild oath formula, sworn by Paul to insist on the reliability of his testimony (Rom 9:1; CCC 2154) **1:21 Syria and Cilicia:** Paul withdrew first to his native city of Tarsus in Cilicia (Acts 9:30) and was later summoned to the Church of Antioch in Syria (Acts 11:25-26) **2:1-10** Scholars disagree over the precise circumstances of this Jerusalem visit. Some link it with the trip that Paul and Barnabas made to provide famine relief for the Judean Christians in Acts 11:28-30. More probably, Paul is referring to his presence at the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15:1-29. Notice that the two accounts concern **(1)** the same people (Paul, Barnabas, and companions, Acts 15:2), **(2)** the same place (Jerusalem, Acts 15:4), **(3)** the same leaders (Peter and James, Acts 15:7, 13), **(4)** the same issue (circumcision, Acts 15:1), and **(5)** the same opponents (the circumcision party, Acts 15:5) **2:1 after fourteen years:** Probably calculated from the time of Paul\'s first visit to Jerusalem (1:18). **Barnabas:** A Levite and native of Cyprus. See note on Acts 4:36. **Titus:** One of Paul\'s trusted companions (2 Cor 2:13; Tit 1:4). He is mentioned here to illustrate that, although Titus was an uncircumcised Gentile, the Jerusalem apostles welcomed him into their fellowship (Gal 2:3) **2:2 I laid before them:** Paul received his gospel directly from Christ (1:12), yet he submitted it for approval to the senior apostles in Jerusalem (Acts 15:2). This was to confirm that his message was in line with the doctrine of the Twelve and to remove suspicions that his missionary efforts were at odds with the authority of the Church\'s recognized leaders. In the end, the pillar apostles \"added nothing\" to his message (Gal 2:6) and openly affirmed his ministry by giving him the \"right hand of fellowship\" (2:9) **2:3 compelled to be circumcised:** The Greek expression here and at 6:12 is used by ancient writers like Josephus and Ptolemy to describe forcible circumcision. The idea is historically linked with Jewish military efforts to subjugate neighboring Gentiles during the Maccabean period by forcing them under the yoke of the Mosaic Law (cf. 1 Mac 2:46) and the administration of the Judean State centered in Jerusalem. The Judaizers are doing something analogous in Galatia by insisting that Gentiles submit to circumcision in order to be incorporated into the commonwealth of the covenant people **2:4 false brethren:** Judean believers who promoted circumcision as a necessary prerequisite for salvation (Acts 15:1). **our freedom:** Christ liberates believers from the curses and ceremonies of the Mosaic Law (3:13; 5:6; 6:15). The danger here is that the Judaizers will enslave the Galatians if they successfully persuade them to receive circumcision (5:1-3) **2:6 reputed to be something:** The Jerusalem apostles were held in high esteem. Though his tone seems distant and cool, Paul neither affirms nor denies them this honor **2:7 uncircumcised .circumcised:** Epithets for Gentiles and Israelites, respectively (Eph 2:11-12). This does not mean the divisions of missionary labor were drawn along purely geographical lines, since Peter traveled extensively and Paul also evangelized his Israelite kinsmen living among the Gentiles. See note on Acts 13:5 **2:9 James and Cephas and John:** I.e., James, the brother of the Lord (1:19), Simon Peter (Jn 1:42), and John, the son of Zebedee (Mt 10:2). The order of the names is unusual, as Peter is always mentioned first in the apostolic lists of the NT (Mt 10:2; Mk 3:16; Jn 21:2; Acts 1:13). Perhaps Paul lists James first as a way of undercutting the claims of the Judaizers, who, along with other Jewish conservatives, had a deep respect for James as the spiritual shepherd of the Jerusalem Church at this time (after Peter fled the city, Acts 12:17). By stressing that *James* endorsed his gospel, Paul shows that the Judaizers have no official backing from Jerusalem, even from its most conservative leadership. For more on James, see note on Gal 1:19. **pillars:** Important leaders in the Church, which is pictured as the living Temple of God (Rev 3:12; cf. Eph 2:19-22) **2:10 remember the poor:** This was the inspiration behind Paul\'s effort to collect charitable contributions for the believers in Jerusalem living in poverty (Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 8-9). The Galatians themselves donated to this fund (1 Cor 16:1-3) **2:11 Antioch:** The capital of the Roman province of Syria, north of Palestine. The Antiochene Church was the first to bring Christian Jews and Gentiles together in fellowship (Acts 11:19-26) and the first to organize missionary outreaches to the Gentiles (Acts 13:1-3). **Cephas** probably came to the city after the Jerusalem Council, as did Paul and Barnabas (Acts 15:35) **2:12 separated himself:** Peter reverts to the custom of traditional Judaism, which discouraged social contact, especially shared meals, between Jews and Gentiles (Acts 10:28; *Jubilees* 22, 16). It was feared, among other things, that Gentile food might violate the purity standards of the Torah, i.e., it might be either unclean or improperly prepared (Lev 11:1-47; 17:10-13). The problem here is that Peter has already been informed that the Jewish dietary laws have been set aside in the New Covenant and that Gentiles are now welcome members of the family of faith (Acts 10:9-16, 28). **men came from James:** Either a delegation sent by James or loyal associates of James who came on their own initiative. The former seems more likely, but, for the possibility of the latter, see Acts 15:24. **the circumcision party:** Jewish Christians who discouraged table fellowship between Jews and Gentiles. Peter had been criticized by them on this issue once before (Acts 11:2-3) **2:14 before them all:** It is precisely Peter\'s authority and influence in the Church that made it necessary for Paul to correct him in public. **to live like Jews:** Literally, \"to Judaize\", or \"to adopt Jewish customs\". Peter\'s conduct implied the very thing he had denied at the Jerusalem Council, namely, that Gentile Christians must adopt the ritual laws of Judaism in order to secure their standing in the covenant and obtain salvation (Acts 15:7-11). • The same expression is used once in the Greek OT, where it describes how Gentiles from Persia were circumcised and Judaized for \"fear of the Jews\" (Esther 8:17). Here too, in the case of Peter (Gal 2:12) as well as the Judaizers (6:12), fear is once again the driving force behind the impulse to Judaize **2:16 justified:** Established in a right relationship with God. Justification involves the cleansing of sin, the infusion of divine life, and the adoption of the believer into the family of God through Baptism (1 Cor 6:11; Tit 3:5) (CCC 1987-95). See word study: **Justified** at Rom 2:13. **works of the law:** See essay: **The Works of the Law** at Gal 2. **shall no flesh be justified:** Identical to the statement in Rom 3:20 and probably an allusion to the Greek version of Ps 143:2. • The Psalmist begs the Lord to suspend judgment on his life, for he knows that no one is without fault and thus no one can stand before God in perfect righteousness. • Some claim that if no one is justified by the law, but only by faith in Christ, then the Patriarchs and Prophets who lived before Christ were imperfect. The saints of old, however, were justified by faith in Christ (St. Jerome, *Commentary on Galatians* 2:16) **2:17 found to be sinners:** I.e., living like Gentiles, who do not follow the Mosaic Law (2:15) **2:18 which I tore down:** The Torah stood as a protective barrier between Israel and the idolatry of the Gentiles (Lev 15:31; 20:26). This dividing wall of separation has now been dismantled by Christ (Eph 2:14), who brings Jews and Gentiles together in the New Covenant (3:28) **2:20 crucified with Christ:** United with the Cross, Paul has died to an old order of things, namely, the slavery of sin and the regime of the Old Covenant. He describes this elsewhere as a sacramental union with Jesus effected through Baptism (Rom 6:3-8). **lives in me:** Believers possess life that is natural and biological (human life) as well as supernatural and theological (divine life). **who loved me:** Jesus endured the torture and shame of the Cross for the entire world collectively and for every person individually (CCC 478, 616) **2:21 died to no purpose:** Paul reasons that if the Mosaic Law had been sufficient all along to remove sin, establish us in righteousness, and bring us into God\'s family, then the Cross would have been completely unnecessary (3:21). • The Law can neither remit sin nor triumph over eternal death nor free those held captive because of sin. Christ died to provide those things that the Law could not (Ambrosiaster, *Commentary on Galatians* 2:21) **3:1 O foolish Galatians:** Paul is irked and dismayed that his readers have succumbed to the pressure of the Judaizers (1:6). **portrayed as crucified:** The Galatians did not witness the Crucifixion of Jesus in person but embraced the message of the Cross that Paul so vividly proclaimed (1 Cor 1:18, 23) **3:2 hearing with faith?:** The Galatian controversy turns on the question of *when* they received the Holy Spirit. Since this happened when they believed the gospel and were baptized (Acts 2:38), Paul deems it foolish to accept circumcision and other **works** of the Mosaic Law as additional requirements needed to complete their Christian initiation. This is the very logic set forth by Peter at the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:8-11) **3:4 experience:** This could also be translated \"suffer\" and may indicate that some, like the Judaizers themselves, were tempted to accept circumcision because of Jewish persecution (6:12) **3:6 Abraham:** The great-grandfather of Israel by race and the father of all believers by grace. Paul sees the gospel of justification proclaimed in the life of Abraham, who was righteous by faith completely apart from his circumcision (Rom 4:9-12). **believed God:** A citation from Gen 15:6. • This was a time of testing for Abraham, when God was stretching his faith in a moment of discouragement (1 Mac 2:52). Though faced with formidable obstacles, such as his age and the barrenness of his wife, he trusted that God could do the impossible by giving him a son. The promise was later fulfilled in the birth of Isaac (Gen 21:1-3). It is clear from the context of Genesis, as well as Heb 11:8-12, that this is not the moment of Abraham\'s conversion, for it is not the first time he puts his faith in the Lord. For details, See note on Gen 15:6 **3:8 all the nations be blessed:** The citation combines the Greek version of Gen 12:3 and Gen 18:18. • God promised blessings for Abraham that extended well beyond both his tribal family and his lifetime. It was a promise of worldwide salvation to come (CCC 59-61) **3:10 Cursed be every one:** A citation from Deut 27:26. • This is the final and climactic curse that Israel invoked upon itself in the oath ceremony that ratified the Deuteronomic covenant. In the subsequent context, Moses predicted the rebellion and cursing of Israel (Deut 28:47-68) as well as the eventual restoration and blessing of Israel (Deut 30:1-10). It is possible this passage was used by the Judaizers to insist on the necessity of circumcision, lest nonobservance of the Law result in a curse. Paul, however, uses it against them, charging that everyone who embraces the Law embraces the curse, for not even the Judaizers follow all of its demands to perfection (Gal 6:13). **book of the law:** A technical term for the Book of Deuteronomy (Deut 29:21; 30:10), which was written on a scroll and placed beside the Ark of the Covenant (Deut 31:26). Some read it with reference to the Mosaic Law more generally [[tj-way-ccel-20]] # **3:11 He who through faith:** A citation from Hab 2:4. • Habakkuk is assured that, despite the coming invasion of Judea by the Babylonians, the one who clings to the Lord in faith will be given the grace of protection and will survive the catastrophe. From this text Paul hails faith, not observance of the Law, as the foundation of justification (3:21-22; Rom 1:17) **3:12 He who does them:** A citation from Lev 18:5. • Leviticus promises life to Israel for observing the Torah and shunning the sins of the Gentiles. Yet, as the recurring transgressions of Israel show (Neh 9:29), the Mosaic Law did not come with the grace needed to keep it (Rom 8:4). Paul may be interpreting this passage through the lens of Ezek 20:11, 13, 21, where the Prophet contrasts the Levitical promise of life given at Sinai with the Deuteronomic promises of curse and death issued on the plains of Moab (Ezek 20:25-26) **3:13 Cursed be every one:** A citation from Deut 21:23. • This refers to the practice of hanging executed criminals on trees to avert the wrath of God (Num 25:4; 2 Sam 21:9). For Paul, Jesus bore the curses pressing down upon Israel when he mounted the Cross (Gal 3:10). This act enabled the blessings of the Abrahamic covenant, held back for centuries because of the curse, to pour forth upon Israel and the world as a result (3:14; CCC 580). The Dead Sea Scrolls likewise associate crucifixion with the curse of Deut 21:22-23 **3:14 the blessing of Abraham:** I.e., the Spirit, which is the messianic blessing revealed by the Prophets (Is 44:3; Ezek 36:26-27; Joel 2:28). • The exact expression is from Gen 28:4, where Isaac confers the blessing of Abraham upon his son Jacob. This shows that Isaac alone was the bearer of the Abrahamic blessing, not Ishmael or any other of Abraham\'s sons (Rom 9:7-9). Paul will capitalize on the significance of this in Gal 3:16 and 4:28 **3:15-18** The major premise of Paul\'s covenant theology in Galatians, namely, that Israel\'s failure to keep the *Mosaic* covenant did not relieve God of his prior obligation to fulfill the *Abrahamic* covenant ratified centuries earlier. Since even human covenants are inviolable once they are ratified by oath, the covenant oath that God swore to Abraham is even more so (Gen 22:16-18; Heb 6:13-18). Not even the ratification of subsequent covenants under Moses could alter or annul God\'s unconditional pledge to bless the world through Abraham\'s offspring. In effect, then, the Abrahamic covenant both precedes and supercedes the Mosaic covenant that came after it **3:15 will:** The term means \"testament\" or \"will\" in secular Greek usage but \"covenant\" in biblical Greek usage. Despite the RSV translation, the biblical sense of \"covenant\" is probably intended here, since **(1)** Paul uses the term this way in his other writings (Rom 9:4; 11:27; 2 Cor 3:6, 14; Eph 2:12), **(2) **he uses it this way elsewhere in Galatians (3:17; 4:24), and **(3) **it is a known fact that a will in Greco-Roman antiquity could be altered or even annulled after the death of the testator who drafted it, which is the very point Paul denies in this verse. For a similar translation issue in Hebrews, see essay: **Will or Covenant?** at Heb 9 **3:16 and to his offspring:** A reference to Gen 22:18. • Paul is alluding to the covenant oath that God swore to Abraham to bless all nations through Isaac and his descendants (Sir 44:21; CCC 706). It is significant for Paul that Abraham\'s other son, Ishmael, was disinherited in the preceding chapter of Genesis and thus excluded from this covenant (Gen 21:10-12). Thus, when Paul stresses that the word \"offspring\" is singular rather than plural, he is **(1)** alluding to the divine election of Isaac over Ishmael in the Genesis narrative (Gal 4:28-31; Rom 9:7-8) and **(2)** implying that Isaac is a type of Christ, so that the act that elicits the promised blessing (the sacrifice of Isaac) prefigures the act that fulfills it (the sacrifice of Jesus). See note on Rom 8:32 **3:17 four hundred and thirty years:** The duration of Israel\'s stay in Egypt before the Exodus (Ex 12:40-41). Thus, the Abrahamic covenant, last confirmed with Jacob (Gen 28:14), preceded the ratification of the Mosaic covenant by more than four centuries (Ex 19-24) **3:19 It was added:** The Torah was inserted into history between the Abrahamic covenant and the New Covenant. **because of:** The Greek can indicate either the goal (\"for the sake of\") or the cause (\"by reason of\") for adding the Law. Paul may have both ideas in mind: the *goal* of the Law was to expose transgressions and heighten Israel\'s awareness of sin (Rom 3:20; 5:20; 7:7); the *cause* for adding the Law, at least the bulk of its sacrificial and ceremonial rites, was the rebellion of Israel during the Exodus period, particularly the golden calf transgression (see, e.g., Christian theologians St. Justin Martyr, *Dialogue with Trypho* 18-22; St. Irenaeus, *Against Heresies* 4, 15; St. Aphrahat, *Demonstrations* 15, 8; St. Thomas Aquinas, *Summa Theologiae* I-II, 102, 3). **ordained by angels:** Jewish tradition based on the Greek version of Deut 33:2 held that Moses received the Torah from the hands of the angels (Acts 7:53; Heb 2:2; Josephus, *Antiquities* 15, 136) **3:20 an intermediary:** Moses, who delivered the Torah to Israel (Ex 20:18-22; Deut 5:4-5). That the Mosaic covenant involved a mediator implied that **more than one** party was responsible for fulfilling the terms of the covenant ---God and Israel. The Abrahamic covenant, by contrast, was a unilateral arrangement, i.e., God alone swore an oath and assumed the responsibility of blessing the world through Abraham\'s offspring (Gen 22:16-18). **God is one:** The monotheistic creed of ancient Israel (Deut 6:4) **3:22 consigned all things to sin:** Scripture declares all peoples, Jews and Gentiles alike, prisoners of sin. Paul spells this out in Rom 3:9-19 and Rom 11:32 **3:23 kept under restraint:** The mass of ethical, juridical, and ceremonial laws codified in the Torah was designed to keep Israel in temporary protective custody, lest it imitate the depravity of the Gentiles (CCC 1963-64) **3:27 baptized into Christ:** Baptism is the sacrament of faith (3:26) and the rite of Christian initiation that replaces circumcision (Col 2:11-12). It cleanses us of sin, joins us with Christ, and makes us righteous children of God (Acts 22:16; Tit 3:5; 1 Pet 3:21; CCC 1226-27). Paul\'s description of this mystery reflects early liturgical practice where the newly baptized **put on** a white garment to symbolize their purity in **Christ** (cf. Rom 13:14; Eph 4:24; CCC 1243, 2348) **3:28 you are all one:** All peoples, irrespective of ethnic, gender, and social distinctions, are equal candidates for salvation and sonship in Christ (Col 3:11; CCC 791) > [!NOTE] Word Study > *Custodian* (Gal 3:24-25) - *Paidagōgos* (Gk.): a \"tutor\" or \"disciplinarian\" or \"guide\". The word is used twice in the NT, here and at 1 Cor 4:15. It refers to a household slave in Hellenistic society who was charged by a father to oversee the moral formation of his son. This tutelage normally lasted from the time the child was a minor until he reached maturity. The tutor would accompany the youth to and from school, supervise his daily activities, protect him from dangers, and administer discipline whenever necessary. Paul used this familiar custom to explain how the Mosaic Law served a similar function in Israel. It was an instructor and guide for the nation, yet one that was temporary and destined to pass away. The coming of Christ meant that Israel could now be freed from the supervision and restraints of the Mosaic Law to embrace the full inheritance awaiting it in the New Covenant (Gal 4:4-7; CCC 708). ^iawufl **4:1-7** Paul reads the history of Israel as the story of a minor who has grown to maturity and is ready to receive his inheritance. During the Exodus, Israel was a rebellious son (Ex 4:22) whom Yahweh placed under the guardianship of the Mosaic Law (Gal 3:24) and the servile discipline of covenant curses (3:13). The coming of Christ marks the appointed time when the curses and ceremonies of the Mosaic Law are finally set aside and Israel can receive the full inheritance of sonship through the Spirit (Rom 8:14-15; CCC 1972) **4:3 elemental spirits:** The Greek word is simply \"elements\", which can denote **(1)** the first principles of education (Heb 5:12), **(2)** the physical elements of the world (2 Pet 3:10), **(3)** the heavenly bodies and luminaries, which were deified by the pagans (cf. Deut 4:19), or **(4)** the spirits that control the cosmic elements and were likewise worshiped by the pagans (cf. Wis 13:2). Each of these has connections with the religious culture of the Hellenistic world. In this context, however, life under the elements is connected with life under the Law (Gal 3:23-25). The point is not that Judaism is no different from paganism, but that both constitute a state of bondage under cosmic forces from which Christ has freed us (4:4-5, 8-9; Col 2:8, 20). Perhaps the Torah is classified with the elements because it teaches rudimentary principles of religion; its legal observances make use of physical substances; its cultic calendar follows the movements of the sun and moon; and the Law is mediated by angelic spirits (Gal 3:19), who, according to Jewish tradition, also stand in charge of the physical elements and seasonal cycles of the world (*Jubilees* 2, 2) **4:4 the time had fully come:** History reached a climax with the birth and death of the Messiah (Mk 1:15; Eph 1:10). This was the predetermined date \"set\" by God the Father to confer the blessing of divine sonship upon both Israel and the Gentiles (Gal 4:2; CCC 422, 484). **born of woman:** Emphasizes that Jesus shared in the human condition (Job 14:1; Mt 11:11). Giving birth and flesh to the Son of God makes Mary the Mother of God (CCC 495, 723). See note on Lk 1:43. **born under the law:** Emphasizes Jesus\' link with Judaism and his messianic mission to rescue Israel from the slavery of the Law and its covenant curses (3:13; CCC 580) **4:6 sent the Spirit:** As the Father sent the Son to redeem all nations from sin (4:4), he likewise sent the Spirit to renew them for a life of sanctity. The joint mission of the Son and Spirit is to bring blessing to the whole human family and unify them in the divine family of God (CCC 689). **into our hearts:** The Spirit fills us with God\'s presence and love (Rom 5:5; 2 Cor 1:22). His divine assistance enables us to live righteously as sons and daughters of the Father (Rom 8:4; 1 Jn 3:7; CCC 1265-66, 1695). **Abba!:** Aramaic for \"Father!\" It bespeaks a new level of intimacy with the Father that Jesus opened (Mk 14:36) for the children of God (Rom 8:15) (CCC 683, 2766) **4:8-11** Paul\'s personal appeal to the Galatians. Having refuted the logic of the Judaizers in 3:1-4:7, he now urges readers to repudiate their propaganda. The pastoral tone of this section reveals the depth of Paul\'s affection for the Galatians and indicates how earnestly he wants to restore them to spiritual health **4:8 you did not know God:** The Galatians were once pagans, ignorant of the God of Israel (Ps 79:6; 1 Thess 4:5). In accepting the gospel, they turned away from lifeless idols to be known and loved by the living God (Gal 4:9; 1 Thess 1:9) **4:9 elemental spirits:** For the meaning of this, see note on Gal 4:3 **4:10 days . months . seasons . years:** Refers to the liturgical calendar of Israel, which was regulated by the cycles of the sun and moon (Gen 1:14). Apparently the Judaizers persuaded some of the Galatians to begin celebrating the weekly (Sabbath, Ex 20:8-11), monthly (New Moon, Num 28:11-15), seasonal (Passover, Pentecost, etc., Deut 16:1-17), and yearly (New Years, see note on Lev 23:24) festivals of the Old Covenant (Col 2:16) **4:12 become as I am:** Imitating Paul in this context means putting aside the ritual ordinances of the Mosaic Law to \"live like a Gentile and not like a Jew\" (2:14) **4:13 a bodily ailment:** The infirmity is not specified, but Paul\'s comments in 4:15 and 6:11 suggest it may have been a visual handicap > [!NOTE] Word Study > *Adoption* (Gal 4:5) - *Huiothesia* (Gk.): means \"adoption as sons\" and can refer to the process of entering a new family or to its lasting result. Paul uses the term five times in the NT. In Rom 9:4, he lists it among the privileges that Israel enjoyed by virtue of its covenant bond with Yahweh (Ex 4:22; Hos 1:11). Every other use of the word is connected with Christians. For Paul, the divine adoption of the believer takes place in two stages: first, our souls are raised to new life and filled with the grace of divine sonship (Rom 8:15; Eph 1:5) and, finally, our bodies will be raised to new life and filled with the glory of divine sonship (Rom 8:23). Divine adoption results from an infusion of the divine life of the Spirit (Gal 4:5-6). Historically, the gift of sonship once possessed in part by Israel is now granted in full to all nations united with Christ through faith and Baptism (Gal 3:26-27). While Christ alone is the natural Son of God, we are made to share in his filial life as adopted \"sons in the Son\". ^wzlx0l **4:19 in travail:** Paul describes himself as a mother who begot Christ in the lives of the Galatians (cf. 2:20). His labor pains continue as he groans to see his sons and daughters turning back to bondage (CCC 526, 562) **4:22 two sons:** Abraham\'s oldest son, Ishmael, was born of his concubine, Hagar (Gen 16:15), while his younger son, Isaac, was born of his wife, Sarah (Gen 21:1-3). Hagar was Sarah\'s personal slave (Gen 16:1) **4:23 through promise:** The birth of Isaac was the result of God\'s promise and miraculous intervention, since Sarah was barren and elderly at the time (Gen 15:2-4; 17:15-19). Ishmael was conceived by purely natural means, that is, according to **the flesh** (Gen 16:3-4) **4:24-31** The mothers of Isaac and Ishmael represent two distinct covenants and thus two ages of salvation history. The slave woman, **Hagar,** is linked with **Mount Sinai,** where the Torah was given to Israel; the essence of this covenant was practiced and promoted in **Jerusalem.** The free woman, Sarah, is symbolic of the heavenly **Jerusalem above,** where the saints worship God in the freedom of the New Covenant (Heb 12:22-23) without the burdensome yoke of the Mosaic Law (Gal 5:1). A contrast is thus set up between the Judaizers and the Galatians: the former are sons of the earthly Jerusalem, who are born into religious slavery through the Law (like Ishmael, from Hagar), while the latter are sons of the heavenly Jerusalem (CCC 757), who are born into freedom and blessedness through the gospel (like Isaac, from Sarah). See note on Gal 3:15-18 **4:24 this is an allegory:** An example of spiritual exegesis, which expounds the prophetic meaning of OT persons, places, events, and institutions in light of the New Covenant. Whereas literal exegesis interprets the words of the Bible, spiritual exegesis interprets the realities and events of the Bible described by its words (CCC 115-17). • The author of Holy Scripture is God, who can signify his meaning, not only by words, as even man can do, but also by things. The first signification whereby words signify things belongs to the historical or literal sense. The signification whereby things signified by words also have their own signification is the spiritual sense, which is based on the literal and presupposes it (St. Thomas Aquinas, *Summa Theologiae* I, 1, 10) **4:25 in Arabia:** Paul naturally links Hagar with Arabia, since the descendants of her son, Ishmael (Arabs), dwelt in this desert region **4:27 Rejoice, O barren one:** A citation from the Greek version of Is 54:1. • Isaiah compares Jerusalem, destroyed and desolate after the Exile (586 B.C.), to a barren woman made fruitful by God and to a tent that will spread out to make the nations her children (Is 54:2-3). Historically, the text is an allusion to the matriarch Sarah, who was barren but miraculously gave birth to Isaac. Prophetically, it points to the heavenly Jerusalem, which is the mother city made fruitful by God to bear children from all nations through the gospel **4:28 children of promise:** Paul concludes that those in Christ (3:27) share the Abrahamic blessings that were promised to come through Isaac to the world (3:14). See note on Gal 3:16 **4:29 persecuted:** Paul follows a Jewish tradition that interprets the \"playing\" of Abraham\'s sons in Gen 21:9 as a power struggle between the boys, with the older Ishmael taunting the younger Isaac. The current harassment by the Judaizers links them with Hagar and the Ishmaelites, whose descendants were among the traditional enemies of the covenant people (1 Chron 5:10; Ps 83:5-6) **4:30 Cast out the slave:** A citation from Gen 21:10. • This is the moment when Ishmael is expelled from Abraham\'s family and disqualified from being a rightful heir. It refutes the logic of the Judaizers that circumcision is the sign that entitles one to a share in the blessings of Abraham. In effect, Paul is reminding them that Ishmael and Isaac were *both* circumcised, yet Ishmael was disinherited and Isaac alone received his father\'s blessing. See note on Jn 8:35 **5:1 yoke of slavery:** An image of the Mosaic Law, with its burdensome ceremonial requirements (Acts 15:10). It stands in stark contrast to the **freedom** of faith in Jesus Christ (Mt 11:29-30), who alone liberates us from sin and death (Acts 13:38-39; CCC 1972). For Paul, the two are mutually exclusive, since to *accept* the yoke of the Law as a requirement for salvation is to *reject* Christ as the sole foundation of our redemption and spiritual life (Gal 2:21). • The Council of Florence (1442) declared that Christians cannot observe the Mosaic ceremonies of the Old Covenant as necessary for salvation without sinning gravely (Session 11). Although it was permitted for Jewish converts to maintain their ancestral traditions in the earliest days of the Church, this grace period ended with the wide dissemination of the gospel. Thereafter neither Jews nor Gentiles could lawfully uphold circumcision, animal sacrifices, or dietary distinctions as legitimate practices in the New Covenant **5:3 keep the whole law:** Circumcision is the doorway into the Old Covenant, and so those who embrace it are obligated to observe the Mosaic Law in its entirety. Ironically, the Judaizers are hypocrites in this regard (6:13) **5:6 faith working through love:** Faith alone is insufficient to justify the sinner. If it stands by itself and fails to join with love in acts of generosity and service, it is empty and vain (1 Cor 13:2; Jas 2:14-26). The parallel passage in 1 Cor 7:19, which likewise asserts the irrelevance of circumcision, suggests that Paul associates the labor of faith and love with keeping the moral commandments of God. Love has precisely this focus in Pauline theology (Gal 5:13-14; Rom 13:8-10) (CCC 162, 1814) **5:9 A little leaven:** Symbolic of a hidden but evil influence (Mt 16:12; 1 Cor 5:6-8). If even a few of Paul\'s readers submit to circumcision at the insistence of the Judaizers, it could have a disastrous effect upon all the Galatian Christians **5:11 stumbling block of the cross:** In the eyes of the Judaizers, this would consist in the exemption of converts from the ritual demands of the Mosaic Law **5:12 mutilate themselves:** Paul wishes sarcastically that the Judaizers, in their zeal to promote circumcision, would go even farther by castrating themselves (Phil 3:2) **5:13 called to freedom:** Christian liberty is not a license to indulge in sin and selfishness. We are free, rather, to mature in grace and become the saints we are called to be (Jn 8:31-32). Once Christ has freed us from sin (Rom 6:20-22), the ceremonies of the Old Law (Acts 15:1-11), the curses of the Law (Gal 3:13), and the tyranny of our fallen nature (Rom 8:2), it is grossly irresponsible to despise his grace by reverting to the old ways. This would lead again to spiritual slavery, putting offenders in a worse position than ever before (2 Pet 2:19-22) (CCC 1740-42) **5:14 the whole law:** The chief aim of the Torah is to promote the love of God, neighbor, and self (Mt 22:34-40; Rom 13:8-10). Jesus lived this intention of the Law to perfection, so that the law of love has become the \"law of Christ\" (Gal 6:2; 1 Cor 9:21). Our ability to fulfill this law is made possible by the grace of the Spirit (Rom 5:5; 8:4). **You shall love your neighbor:** A citation from Lev 19:18. Observance of this law was sorely needed in Galatia, where the Judaizing crisis spawned bitterness and strife between fellow Christians (Gal 5:15). • It may be asked why the apostle mentions love of neighbor but not love of God. Yet who can love his neighbor if he does not love God, since it is only by the gift of God that one can love his neighbor? Since neither precept can be observed unless the other is observed, it suffices to mention one of them (St. Augustine, *Exposition of Galatians* 45) **5:16-24** Paul alerts readers that a hidden war is waged in the heart of every Christian. It is a struggle between the **Spirit** and our **flesh,** i.e., our fallen nature that inclines us toward evil (Rom 8:5-8). Unless we follow the Spirit\'s lead, the lusts of the flesh (concupiscence) will dominate our lives and enslave us in sin. When we respond to grace, we enable the Spirit to work powerfully in us by clearing out the vices that lead us away from God. Because of our weaknesses, victory in this struggle is possible but not easy (1 Cor 9:25-27) (CCC 2515-16; 1426; 2744) **5:19 works of the flesh:** The sins of the flesh include more than just sins of the body (5:19-21). They consist of every act of immorality and injustice that stems from a disordered love of the world (Jas 4:1-5; 1 Jn 2:15-17). These grave sins sever offenders from Christ (Gal 5:4) and will block their entrance into heaven if repentance is neglected (CCC 1470, 1855) **5:21 shall not inherit the kingdom:** Even Christians can forfeit their salvation if they stifle the Spirit and submit to the flesh (Rom 6:15-16). Paul posts this warning in several of his letters (Rom 8:12-13; 1 Cor 6:9-10; Eph 5:5) **5:22 the fruit of the Spirit:** The indwelling of the Spirit produces holiness in the lives of believers (Mt 12:33; Jn 15:1-6). The first fruit of this divine presence is love, the source of all that is good and the virtue upon which others are built (Rom 5:5; 2 Cor 1:22). It may be significant that Paul says \"fruit\" (singular) instead of \"fruits\" (plural), suggesting that life in the Spirit is integrated and whole, not fragmented or divided (CCC 736, 1695, 1832) **5:24 crucified the flesh:** Baptism unites believers with the saving death of Jesus, so much so that Paul says we are \"crucified with Christ\" (2:20; cf. Rom 6:3-4). In addition to receiving forgiveness, we die to our former way of life through the Spirit, who gives us new strength to master our **passions** and selfish **desires** (Rom 7:21-8:2) (CCC 2543, 2848) **6:1 restore him:** Fraternal correction is an unpleasant but necessary task to promote the welfare of fellow Christians and, beyond that, the whole Body of Christ. This must be an act of mercy and encouragement, not severity. Paul speaks from experience in this regard (2:11-16) **6:2 the law of Christ:** The entire life of Jesus is the law of Christian living (Mt 11:29). It is summarized in the commandment of love (Jn 13:34-35) and calls us to carry the **burdens** of others as Christ did for us (1 Pet 2:24). Christian charity prohibits indifference toward our neighbor but encourages us instead to bear up with his weaknesses (Rom 15:1) and make his joys and sorrows our own (Rom 12:15; 1 Cor 12:26; CCC 1965-70) **6:4 test his own work:** It is important to examine our lives before God and not to compare ourselves with others (2 Cor 13:5). In the end, everyone is responsible for his own actions and will give an account to the Lord (1 Cor 4:5) **6:6 share all good things:** This probably refers to material and financial support that local congregations rightfully owe their spiritual leaders (Lk 10:7; 1 Cor 9:11-14) **6:7-9** The principle of sowing and reaping is an inflexible law of the spiritual life (Job 4:8; Jer 17:10). Just as farmers invariably harvest the same crop they planted, so every thought, word, and deed sown in this life has a consequence that springs directly from it in the next. Those who sow in the **Spirit** will reap holiness and heavenly glory; those who sow in the **flesh** can expect nothing but death and decay. Since Paul speaks of a lifetime of **well-doing,** patience and perseverance are needed to see the fruit of our labors (Mt 24:13; Rom 2:6-7; Heb 3:14) **6:11 I am writing:** Paul penned the postscript of Galatians himself, whereas the body of the letter was dictated to a secretary, as in Rom 16:22 and 2 Thess 3:17. He writes with **large letters** either for emphasis or because of poor eyesight (4:15) **6:12-13** The Judaizers were driven by fear of persecution, probably from Jewish nationalists who pressured them to make circumcision the focus of their missionary efforts. Paul accuses them of abandoning the true gospel, not out of conviction, but out of cowardice. See notes on Gal 2:3 and 2:14 **6:14 crucified to me:** Paul reiterates what he said in 2:20 and 5:24, that in Christ our sins and worldly passions are put to death. Paul thus emphasizes that the Cross ---not circumcision --- is the sign of our salvation (6:15; 1 Cor 1:18) **6:15 a new creation:** The indwelling of the Spirit renews us from within and makes us sharers in the divine life (2 Pet 1:4; CCC 1214). The regenerating grace of the New Covenant will eventually permeate the entire cosmos (Rom 8:19-23; Rev 21:1). See note on 2 Cor 5:17 **6:16 Peace and mercy:** For similar benedictions, see Ps 128:6 and Sir 50:22-23. **the Israel of God:** The covenant family of believing Israel united with the Gentiles. See essay: **Kingdom Restoration** at Acts 15 **6:17 the marks of Jesus:** Property and slaves in the ancient world were branded with a mark of ownership. Paul views himself as a slave of Christ (Rom 1:1) who bears physical scars from the many persecutions that accompanied his apostolic work (Acts 14:19; 16:22; 2 Cor 11:23-29) --- > Scott Hahn and Curtis Mitch, *The Ignatius Catholic Study Bible: New Testament*, Revised Standard Version, Second Catholic Edition (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2010).